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IC 


9048 



Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1985 



Literature on the Revegetation 

of Coal-Mined Lands: 

An Annotated Bibliography 



By David L. Veith, Kenneth L. Bickel, Roger W. E. Hopper, 
and Michael R. Norland 




UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



75: 



w 
If/NES 75TH AV*^ 



Information Circular 9048 



Literature on the Revegetation 

of Coal-Mined Lands: 

An Annotated Bibliography 



By David L. Veith, Kenneth L Bickel, Roger W. E. Hopper, 
and IVIicliael R. Norland 




UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Donald Paul Hodel, Secretary 

BUREAU OF MINES 
Robert C. Horton, Director 






Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: 



Literature on the revegetation of coal-mined lands. 

(Bureau of Mines information circular ; 9048) 

Bibliography. 

Supt. of Docs, no.: I 28.27: 9048. 

1, Reclamation of land— Bibliography. 2. Revegetation— Bibliogra- 
phy. 3. Coal mines and mining— Environmental aspects— Bibliography. 
I. Veith, David L. II. Series: Information circular (United States. Bu- 
reau of Mines) ; 9048. 

im2a.54J4^ [Z5074.R4] [S6215.C62] 622s 85-16596 

[631.6'4] 




CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract 1 

Introduction 2 

Acknowledgments 2 

Factors affecting revegetatlon 2 

Reference selection 4 

Availability of other Information 5 

Reference categories 5 

Summary 8 

Appendix A. — Reference evaluations 9 

Appendix B. — Annotated bibliography 51 

Appendix C. — Other bibliographies of coal-mlned-land reclamation literature.... 290 
Appendix D. — OSM offices and State and Indian contacts for abandoned mine lands 

(Title IV) and regulatory (Title V) grant programs 291 

ILLUSTRATION 

1. Coal mining regions of the United States 6 





UNIT OF MEASURE ABBREVIATIONS 


USED IN THIS REPORT 


acre-ft/acre 


acre feet per acre 


lb/acre 


pound per acre 


BA 


basal area 


m 


meter 


Btu/acre 


British thermal unit 
per acre 


m2 


square meter 






in2/g 


square meter per gram 


Btu/cord 


British thermal unit 








per cord 


m2/ha 


square meter per 
hectare 


Btu/lb 


British thermal unit 








per pound 


MBtu/ha 


mega British thermal 
unit per hectare 


"C 


degree Celsius 










meq/lOOg 


milliequivalent per 


cm 


centimeter 




100 gram 


cm/h 


centimeter per hour 


mg/ha 


milligram per hectare 


cm/yr 


centimeter per year 


min 


minute 


Dbh 


diameter at breast height 


ml 


milliliter 


ft 


foot 


mm 


millimeter 


g 


gram 


mm/d 


millimeter per day 


g/cm^ 


gram per cubic centimeter 


pmho 


micromho 


g/m2 


gram per square meter 


ymho/cm 


micromho per 
centimeter 


ha 


hectare 










pet 


percent 


in 


inch 










PLS 


pure live seed 


In/yr 


inch per year 










ppm 


part per million 


kg 


kilogram 










t 


metric ton 


kg/cm^ 


kilogram per cubic 








centimeter 


t/acre 


metric ton per acre 


kg /ha 


kilogram per hectare 


t/ha 


metric ton per hectare 


kl/ha 


kiloliter per hectare 


yd 3 


cubic yard 


1 


liter 


yd ■'/acre 


cubic yard per acre 


l/lll2 


liter per square meter 







LITERATURE ON THE REVEGETATION OF COAL-MINED 
LANDS: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 



By David L. Veith, ^ Kenneth L. Bickel, ^ Roger W. E. Hopper, ' 
and Michael R. Norland'^ 



ABSTRACT 

This Bureau of Mines bibliography of U.S. and Canadian literature 
pertaining to revegetating coal-mined lands contains 805 references 
published from 1977 to 1984. Each reference is evaluated by keywords, 
providing the reader with a means of rapidly sorting through the refer- 
ences to locate only those dealing with the coal mining region and sub- 
ject of interest. All references are annotated. Other sources of in- 
formation are given, including Office of Surface Mining (OSM) and State 
reclamation agencies and other published bibliographies. 



^Mining engineer. 
^Soil scientist. 

•^Soil scientist (graduate student) . 
Twin Cities Research Center, Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN, 



INTRODUCTION 



Public Law 95-87, the Surface Mining 
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 
(SMCRA), was signed into law on August 3, 
1977. Regulations for implementing the 
act were prepared by the Department of 
the Interior's newly created Office of 
Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforce- 
ment (OSM). Among the regulations are 
performance standards for revegetating 
surface-coal-mined areas and surface 
areas of underground coal mines. 

A large amount of coal mine reveget^- 
tion activity and research has been re- 
ported in the technical literature, both 
prior to and subsequent to the act. The 
information is diverse and widely scat- 
tered throughout books, scientific jour- 
nals, periodicals. Government reports, 
and other sources. While a number of 
bibliographies have been written relating 



to coal mining and reclamation, the need 
was identified for a method of obtaining 
recent literature pertaining to coal mine 
revegetation in a timely and efficient 
manner, especially since the act was 
passed. The Bureau of Mines, at the re- 
quest of OSM, prepared this document to 
meet this need. This report contains 
bibliographic citations and annotations 
of 805 references published from 1977 to 
1984, directly applicable to coal mine 
revegetation in the United States. It 
provides a method of rapidly screening 
the articles so the reader can obtain 
those of interest. This report is in- 
tended for use by researchers , Government 
personnel, mining companies, and others 
involved in reclaiming and revegetating 
coal-mined lands. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 



The authors thank the staff of the Bu- 
reau of Mines Twin Cities Research Cen- 
ter who participated in this effort. The 
Center's librarian. Merle T. Bernstein, 
deserves an especially large thank you 
for her efforts in identifying sources 
and obtaining published information for 
the manual. 

Jean Albrect and Judy Schinn, librar- 
ians at the University of Minnesota's 



Forestry Library, provided invaluable 
assistance in obtaining reference 
materials. 

This project received strong support 
and encouragement from the Office of Sur- 
face Mining and was developed and closely 
coordinated with that organization from 
the outset. 



FACTORS AFFECTING REVEGETATION 



Every site requiring revegetation is 
unique. When developing a revegetation 
plan, many site-specific factors must 
be considered that influence what species 
to plant and how to establish and main- 
tain the vegetation community. Regula- 
tions, land use, climate, mining and 
soil-handling methods, soil and overbur- 
den characteristics, and slope and aspect 
are important factors. Local, State, 
and Federal regulations must be met. 
The land use or uses after mining, as 
approved by the regulatory authority, 
must equal or exceed the premining land 
use. The vegetation established must be 
capable of thriving in the climate of the 
area. Since the soil or overburden that 



exists prior to mining is usually used as 
the plant growth medium, the characteris- 
tics of the material must be known prior 
to developing a revegetation plan. The 
mining and soil-handling methods used 
during mining, recontouring, and topsoil- 
ing influence the type and characteris- 
tics of the plant growing media available 
at the site. Finally, the slope and as- 
pect of the site must be considered. 

It is the responsibility of the indi- 
viduals developing the revegatation plan 
to recognize these site-specific factors 
and obtain all information and data nec- 
essary to develop a workable plan for 
that particular site. A brief discussion 
of each of these factors follows. 



Prior to 1977, there was no Federal law 
governing coal-mined-land reclamation, 
although some States did have reclamation 
regulations. However, since the passage 
of SMCRA, all coal producers must comply 
with regulations based on the Federal 
act. Those regulations were prepared by 
OSM, but primary responsibility for im- 
plementing and enforcing the Federal 
rules has been given to most coal mining 
States after OSM approval of their State 
programs. Most State programs closely 
parallel OSM regulations. 

OSM regulations are published in the 
Code of Federal Regulations Title 30, 
Part 700 to End. Initial program regula- 
tions are in Subchapter B, Parts 710 to 
725. Permanent program performance stan- 
dards for land use and revegetation are 
given in Parts 816 (permanent program 
performance standards - surface mining) 
and 817 (permanent program performance 
standards - underground mining). Special 
performance standards are given in other 
parts for mining occurring in prime farm- 
land, anthracite mining in Pennsylvania, 
mountaintop removal mining, and other 
situations. A thorough review of all ap- 
plicable Federal, State, and local regu- 
lations is required before a reclamation 
plan can be finalized. 

Reclaimed land must be capable of at 
least supporting the use or uses present 
prior to mining. Land-use classifica- 
tions recognized in the permanent program 
are cropland, grazingland, pastureland, 
forestry, residential, industrial-commer- 
cial, recreation, fish and wildlife hab- 
itat, developed water resources, and 
undeveloped land (30 CFR 701.5). The se- 
lected postmining land use must be ap- 
proved by the regulatory authority. 

Many factors must be considered when 
selecting a land use. It must be compat- 
ible with adjacent land uses and with ap- 
plicable Federal, State, and local land- 
use plans. Socioeconomic factors must 
be considered, as well as the effects 
on important environmental values. Soil 
conditions and water availability must be 
suitable for the proposed land use. 

The climate in any area obviously af- 
fects revegetation planning. The revege- 
tated site is affected by the length of 
the growing season, temperature extremes. 



rainfall, wind conditions, humidity, and 
freeze-thaw conditions. The climate af- 
fects what plant species are selected, 
how and when to plant, the use of soil 
amendments and revegetation equipment, 
requirements for maintaining vegetation, 
and other factors. 

The importance of moisture is recog- 
nized in the regulations. The act re- 
quires all coal operators to assume lia- 
bility for successful revegetation for 10 
full years after the last year of seed- 
ing, fertilizing, irrigation, or other 
revegetation activities in areas that re- 
ceive 26 in or less of annual precipita- 
tion. In areas where precipitation ex- 
ceeds 26 in/yr, the liability period is 
5 yr. The lack of moisture can often 
dictate the success or failure of a re- 
vegetation program, particularly in arid 
parts of the Western United States. 

The mining method(s) employed to mine 
the coal, whether area mining, contour 
mining, open pit mining, or some combina- 
tion thereof, dictates how the overburden 
and soil is picked up, transported, and 
emplaced. The material moved may be 
thoroughly mixed, or handled selectively, 
in order to create the best plant growth 
mediinn possible. 

Regulations now require that topsoil be 
removed and replaced (unless, in some 
cases, substitute materials are shown to 
be more suitable growth media). Ideally, 
soil horizons would be replaced in the 
same sequence in which they were removed, 
assuming they provided a good growth me- 
dium in their natural state. However, 
the soil horizons are often mixed or in- 
verted during the soil-handling process, 
and this can result in increased soil 
bulk densities nearer the surface, as 
natural soil bulk densities tend to in- 
crease with depth. 

More importantly, equipment used to re- 
place the soil exerts significant pres- 
sure on the surface, increasing the soil 
bulk density through compaction. If suf- 
ficient, compaction can reduce a soil's 
ability to support vigorous vegetation by 
adversely affecting the water content and 
movement, air movement, thermal conduc- 
tivity, nutrient availability, root pene- 
tration, and seedling emergence. 



The characteristics of the material to 
be used for plant growth, whether it be 
soil or overburden (or substitute mate- 
rial) , must be determined prior to reveg- 
etation. Among the important character- 
istics are organic carbon, nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potassium contents, pH, 
cation exchange capacity, exchangeable 
calcium and magnesium, and texture. The 
presence of toxic materials should also 
be determined. 

Many soil-related problems can be al- 
leviated through proper soil-handling 
practices and the use of soil amend- 
ments. Mulches, fertilizers, pH modifi- 
ers , sludges , and biological amendments 
(such as mycorrhizae-f orming fungi) are 
available to correct soil deficiencies. 



Proper soil-handling methods, such as re- 
placing topsoil immediately after removal 
to ensure biological viability of the 
soil, can aid revegetation efforts. 

Sloped areas can be extremely difficult 
to revegetate. Vegetation must be estab- 
lished quickly and must hold the soil to 
prevent erosion. Erosion control is very 
important when selecting plant species , 
soil amendments, and a revegetation 
method. 

The aspect, or orientation, of a sloped 
area is another important consideration. 
South-facing slopes receive the most sun- 
light, raising soil temperatures and dry- 
ing the soil quickly, often hindering 
vegetative establishment and growth. 



REFERENCE SELECTION 



There is substantial coal mine reclama- 
tion and revegetation information avail- 
able, most of which has been published in 
the last 15 years. To tap this reservoir 
of information, reference lists were gen- 
erated from DIALOG SDI (Selective Dissem- 
ination of Information) Service. DIALOG"^ 
is a computer-based information retrieval 
service that accesses a number of data 
bases dealing with a variety of subjects. 
Fourteen data bases were accessed us- 
ing three keyword combinations (sur- 
face mining and reclamation, strip mining 
and reclamation, and revegetation). This 
generated over 7,000 listings. 

While examining each reference list 
from each data base, a large amount of 
duplication of listings within and be- 
tween data bases was found. The DOE 
ENERGY data base listing was chosen for 
further examination, both for its large 
number of listings and for its broad cov- 
erage of the literature. This data base 
contains all the unclassified information 
that passes through the Technical Infor- 
mation Center of the U.S. Department of 
Energy. The Center abstracts and indexes 
reports, journal literature, conferences, 
patents, books, monographs, theses, and 

'^Reference to specific trademarks does 
not imply endorsement by the Bureau of 
Mines . 



engineering materials relating to energy 
development for inclusion in the data 
base. 

The DOE ENERGY reference lists were ex- 
amined, and duplications were eliminated. 
All references that obviously did not 
deal with revegetation were eliminated, 
as were those that appeared in the for- 
eign literature (except those dealing 
with developments in the United States 
and Canada). Because a large majority of 
the references listed were dated 1977 or 
later, and because of the availability of 
bibliographies containing literature ci- 
tations older than 1977 (see appendix C) , 
articles older than 1977 were also elimi- 
nated. This left more than 1,000 refer- 
ences to be obtained for review. 

In addition to the references from the 
computer search, over 700 other refer- 
ences were obtained from project files. 
Bureau libraries, and the University of 
Minnesota's libraries, bringing the total 
to almost 1,800 references. 

Prior to evaluation, all references 
were reviewed for inclusion in the bibli- 
ography. Initially, all references were 
included that had significant information 
on revegetation, whether or not the arti- 
cle dealt specifically with coal mine re- 
vegetation. Later, the decision was made 
to include only those that dealt directly 
with coal mine revegetation. 



A total of 805 references were evalu- 
ated within the timeframe of this project 
and are annotated in this bibliography. 



Most of them date from 1977 to 1983, but 
some 1984 publications are included. 



AVAILABILITY OF OTHER INFORMATION 



Only a portion of the available infor- 
mation on coal mine revegetation is in- 
cluded in this document; other bibliog- 
raphies are listed in appendix C. New 
information is constantly being published 
in trade and scientific journals, books, 
theses, and Government reports (available 
from Government agencies and from the 
National Technical Information Service). 
Another source of published information 
is foreign literature, which has not been 
included in this document unless it deals 
with revegetation in Canada or the United 
States. 

Reclamation meetings, such as the Sym- 
posium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sed- 
imentology, and Reclamation presented 
annually at the University of Kentucky, 



Lexington, KY, are good sources of infor- 
mation. Announcements for reclamation 
meetings are given in trade journals, as 
well as in RECTEC, a U.S. Forest Service 
publication that can be obtained by writ- 
ing to the following address: 

USDA, Forest Service 

Northeastern Area State and Private 

Forestry 
Route 2, Highway 21 East 
Berea, KY 40403 

A great deal of information can be 
obtained from OSM and State reclama- 
tion agencies. Appendix D lists OSM of- 
fices and State and Indian contacts for 
surf ace-mined-land reclamation programs. 



REFERENCE CATEGORIES 



To evaluate the references, a list of 
32 keywords based on the revegetation 
process was developed. This list and the 
coal region designations used are dis- 
cussed below. The keywords and region 
designations are used in appendix A to 
evaluate and identify each article so the 
reader can quickly scan articles of par- 
ticular interest. 

The keywords were chosen to deal with 
all aspects of revegetation and to allow 
the reader to obtain information on par- 
ticular aspects of revegetation of inter- 
est. Initially a revegetation plan that 
considers land use, regulations, cost, 
climate, and other factors is developed 
for a site. 

The actual revegetation process begins 
when the topsoil (or plant growth medium) 
has been replaced and ends after bond 
release. Therefore, the keywords were 
chosen to cover information that affects 
the revegetation plan as well as the 
revegetation process, from the time the 
plant growth medium is replaced through 
bond release. Additionally, some arti- 
cles are included that deal with subsoil 
modification before topsoil is replaced. 



and other articles are included that 
evaluate mined areas up to 50 years af- 
ter mining. These articles are of par- 
ticular interest in coal mine revegeta- 
tion and are therefore included in the 
bibliography. 

The following discussion defines the 
keywords and evaluation code and identi- 
fies the coal mining regions. For the 
purpose of this publication, there are 
six coal mining regions in the United 
States (fig. 1). Additionally, two des- 
ignations define information that can 
be applied to coal mine revegetation 
throughout the United States or Canada, 
or information relating to noncoal reveg- 
etation that has application to coal 
revegetation. The regional designations 
are — 

E — Eastern 

I — Interior 

G — Gulf Coast 

R — Rocky Mountain 

N — Northern Great Plains 

P — Pacific (includes Alaska and Hawaii) 

— Entire United States and/or Canada 

X — Noncoal 






ME 



OR 



NY 



NV 



CA 



/ i:UT| 



'/ 



AZ:: 



::C0>: 



mm 



m 



■:^^ 



TX 



„ LEGEND 

\!f;'i;A Eastern 

ZZ2 Interior 

r. 'I Gulf Coast 

t;#/:-:| Rocky Mountain 

^H Northern Great Plains 

l:jj:::;l Pacific (includes Alaska and Hawaii) 



•'LA 



MS, 



300 



Scale, mi 



NC 



J GA 



SC 



FL 



<0 



FIGURE 1. - Coal mining regions of the United States. 



-NJ 
-DE 
-MD 



An evaluation code was developed to 
provide consistency in rating the arti- 
cles. The designations E for excellent, 
G for good, and S for satisfactory are 
defined below: 

E — Excellent reference for that key- 
word, having direct, practical applica- 
tion and specific information for use in 
the revegetation of coal-mined lands . 

G — Good reference with direct applica- 
tion but with less specific information; 
or very good reference for background 
information. 

S — Satisfactory reference with limited 
practical application because it is ei- 
ther too general for direct application 
or of limited scope. 

The above regional coal mining designa- 
tions and evaluation code were applied to 
the 32 keywords for each article. These 
keywords are defined below: 

Land use — Specific uses or management- 
related activities, rather than the vege- 
tation or cover of the land. Land uses 



may be identified in combination when 
joint or seasonal uses occur. There 
are six subcategories of land use, as 
follows : 

Cropland — Land used for the produc- 
tion of adapted crops for harvest, 
alone or in a rotation with grasses and 
legumes ; includes row crops , small- 
grain crops, hay crops, nursery crops, 
orchard crops , and other similar spe- 
cialty crops. 

Grazingland — Both grasslands and for- 
est lands where the indigenous vegeta- 
tion is actively managed for grazing, 
browsing, or occasional hay production. 
Pas tur eland — Land used primarily for 
the long-term production of adapted do- 
mesticated forage plants to be grazed 
by -livestock or occasionally cut and 
cured for livestock feed. 

Forestry — Land used or managed for 
the long-term production of wood, wood 
fiber, or wood-derived products. 



wildlife — Land dedicated wholly or 
partly to the production, protection, 
or management of species of fish or 
wildlife. 

Miscellaneous — Other land uses as de- 
fined in CFR 30, 701.5. These include 
residential, industrial-commercial, 
recreation, and undeveloped land. 
Regulations — Laws and policies pertain- 
ing to reclamation and revegetation of 
coal-mined lands. There are three sub- 
categories of regulations, as follows: 

Local — City or county regulations and 
the policies of individual companies. 

State — ^Regulations of a particular 
State. 

Federal — Regulations of the Federal 
Government, such as the Office of Sur- 
face Mining's rules. 
Economic considerations — Information 
pertaining to the costs and cost benefit 
of revegetating coal-mined land. 

Species selection — Information pertain- 
ing to factors that need to be con- 
sidered in selecting plants for revege- 
tation, as well as plant species and 
variety characteristics. 

Climatic conditions — Information re- 
lated not only to the climate of a par- 
ticular area, but also to microclimatic 
considerations at a particular site. 

Soil characterization — Information re- 
lated to testing for, and the physical 
and chemical characteristics of, soil(s) 
to be revegetated, either prior to min- 
ing, during topsoil storage, or after 
topsoil placement. 

Erosion control — Vegetative, physical, 
or mechanical methods of stabilizing soil 
on areas to be reclaimed. Only informa- 
tion on soil stabilization methods whose 
primary purpose is erosion control is in- 
cluded in this category. 

Soil preparation — Mechanical modifica- 
tion of soil prior to revegetation, using 
conventional agricultural equipment such 
as disk harrows or chisels , as well as 
mining equipment or other specialized 
equipment. Mixing of soil materials pri- 
or to soil replacement is included here. 
There are two subcategories of soil prep- 
aration, as follows: 

Topsoil modification — Mechanical mod- 
ification of the topsoil, i.e., the A 
soil horizon of the three major soil 
horizons. 



Subsoil modification — Mechanical mod- 
ification of soil below the topsoil, 
i.e. , below the A horizon. 
Soil amendments — Additions made to 
soil(s) to modify its physical, chemical, 
or biological character in order to 
facilitate revegetation. There are six 
subcategories of soil amendments , as 
follows: 

pH modifiers — Soil amendments whose 
primary purpose is to raise or lower 
soil pH. 

Mulch — Vegetation residues or other 
suitable materials applied to soil sur- 
faces that aid in soil stabilization 
and soil moisture conservation, thus 
providing microclimatic conditions 
suitable for germination and growth. 

Sludge — ^Liquid or solid wastes from 
municipal or industrial processes that 
are used to provide nutrients on reveg- 
etated sites. 

Fertilizers — Information on natural 
and synthetic materials such as manure 
or nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium 
compounds , spread on or worked into 
soil to increase its fertility. 

Biological amendments — Additions of 
soil-dwelling organisms , such as rhizo- 
bium or mycorrhizae-f orming fungi, to 
aid plant growth. 

Other — Amendments other than those 
listed above, that are applied to pre- 
vent salt migration or to achieve other 
purposes. 

Vegetation establishment — Information 
pertaining specifically to the planting 
of seed, transplants, or other plant 
materials, and information relating to 
vegetative succession on reclaimed and 
abandoned mine lands. There are three 
subcategories of vegetation establish- 
ment, as follows: 

Seeding — Information relating to 
planting seed on minesoil, including 
seeding rates , techniques , and 
equipment . 

Transplanting — The planting of plant 
materials other than seed. Including 
seedlings, trees, sodding, sprigging, 
bare root stock, and clumps of 
vegetation. 

Natural — Information pertaining to 
natural vegetative succession on mined 
lands . 



Vegetation maintenance — Procedures re- 
quired after planting to ensure success- 
ful revegetation. There are four subcat- 
egories of vegetation maintenance, as 
follows: 

Irrigation — Techniques for water ad- 
dition to planted and revegetation 
areas. 

Soil and/or plant monitoring — Infor- 
mation pertaining to testing for the 
physical and chemical characteristics 
of plants and soils on revegetated 
areas. Information on minesoil devel- 
opment over time is included here. . 

Pesticides and herbicides — Informa- 
tion on the control of unwanted in- 
sects, rodents, and weeds. 

Upkeep — Other procedures required to 
maintain revegetated areas , including 
mowing, harvesting, reliming, refertil- 
izing, controlled burning, etc. 
Vegetation evaluation — Methods of eval- 
uating the success of revegetation, 
and criteria for allowing bond release. 
There are three subcategories of vegeta- 
tion evaluation, as follows: 

Reference area — ^A land unit main- 
tained under appropriate management for 
the purpose of measuring vegetation 
ground cover, productivity, and plant 
species diversity that are produced ei- 
ther naturally or by crop production 
methods approved by the regulatory au- 
thority. Reference areas must be rep- 
resentative of geology, soil, slope, 
abd vegetation in the permit area. 

Ground cover — The area of ground cov- 
ered by the combined aerial parts of 
vegetation and the litter that is 
produced naturally on-site, expressed 
as a percentage of the total area of 
measurement. 

Productivity — Information on mea- 
suring production on revegetated 
areas. Productivity measurements vary 
with land use. Three measurement 



methods — crop production, grazing ca- 
pacity, and woody plant stocking — are 
normally used. 

A potential problem with evaluating 
references using this system is personal 
interpretation of the keywords and the 
evaluation code, and applying these in- 
terpretations to the articles. Another 
potential problem involved the evalua- 
tors' decision to rate articles within 
each keyword category. In many cases 
there was not enough discussion or data 
in an article to qualify it for a "satis- 
factory" rating in a particular keyword; 
therefore, although the keyword subject 
was mentioned, the article did not re- 
ceive a rating in that category. Using 
this criterion, many articles were dis- 
carded where the entire revegetation sec- 
tion was too general to rate in any key- 
word category. With four evaluators some 
inconsistency must be expected; however, 
periodic cross-checking of evaluations 
proved them to be very consistent. 

A strong point of the kejword system is 
that almost every facet of coal-mined- 
land revegetation is included in it. It 
also provides a simple, rapid, and effec- 
tive method of screening references so 
the reader can quickly determine which 
referencs to obtain. To illustrate by 
example, the reader first becomes famil- 
iar with the keyword, coal region, and 
evaluation criteria definitions. The 
next step is to select the coal region 
and/or keywords of interest, and move 
horizontally across the table in appendix 
A, locating references rated for the key- 
word; these references are identified by 
numbers 1 through 805 at the top of the 
table. The reader can then turn to the 
numbered annotated bibliographical list- 
ing in appendix B for more informa- 
tion. The referenced article can then 
be obtained or rejected, based on the 
annotation. 



SUMMARY 



The technical literature pertaining to 
revegetating coal-mined lands published 
in the United States and Canada from 1977 
to 1984 was reviewed. 

From almost 1,800 references considered 
for inclusion in this bibliography, 805 
were chosen for detailed assessment and 
annotation. Each reference was evaluated 



for various factors (keywords), and a 
means was developed for rapidly sorting 
through the references. This report de- 
scribes the rationale for selecting ref- 
erences , developing keywords , and evalu- 
ating the references. Other sources of 
information are identified in the report. 



APPENDIX A. —REFERENCE EVALUATIONS 



KEY TO COAL REGIONS (fig. 1) 



KEY TO EVALUATION CODES 



E — Eastern 
I — Interior 
G — Gulf Coast 
R — Rocky Mountain 
N — Northern Great Plains 
P — Pacific (including Alaska and 
Hawaii) 

— Entire United States and/or Canada 
X — Noncoal 



E — Excellent reference for that key- 
word, having direct, practical applica- 
tion and specific information for use in 
the revegetation of coal-mined lands. 

G — Good reference with direct applica- 
tion but with less specific information; 
or very good reference for background 
information. 

S — Satisfactory refrence with limited 
practical application, because it is ei- 
ther too general for direct application 
or of limited scope. 



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Climatic conditions 

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28 



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00 


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as lUIIII IlllldlCdl Ul Ulllll mil lUII lUU 




w mimmim iiiiiioi uu uiiiii III iiii ill 


in 


II III llll 1 1 1 II II II 1 II II 
an iimiii iiiimiui mi iiuuii mil luii iiu 


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r-i 


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llllll 1 1 1 1 1 1 U 1 II llllll III llll III 

z 


en 


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O llllll IlllilOl II UIIIII III llll III 


en 


2 ooiili loowmmmi u^ m imimim ooi miii lit 




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i-i iimiii iiiimiii VI tn cdiuuii uii iiii uii 


O 
en 


1 llll llll III II llllll III llll 
O lUIIII IIIIUIII II llllll III llll uuu 


ON 
vO 

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M immiii iiiimiui ii uiiuii mil lUii lUM 


00 

en 


III II II 1 1 1 1 1 II llllll III llll III 
o 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 u 1 1 1 1 1 II llllll 1 <i 1 llll III 


NO 


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i-i llllll iiiiiimi II miiiii III llllll III 


NO 

en 


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h-i llliuu IIIUUUUI UU UIIUII UII llll ItdU 


in 

NO 

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NO 


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o UIIIII iiuiiiui mm llllll III llll III 


NO 

en 


llll 1 1 llllll llllll 1 1 llll III 
z iiiitdi lUiiiiii mm llllll imi iiii ill 


r-l 

NO 


z' llllll 1 llll 1 llll 

mmimii iiiuuuui UU lUIUII umi Ulll imm 

u 


NO 

en 


llllll 11 1 III II llllll 1 1 llll ! ! „ 

o llllll iimimiii II llllll lui llll iim 


u 
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29 



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State 

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Ground cover 

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51 

APPENDIX B. — ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Abbott, D., and G. B. Bacon. Reclamation of Coal Mine Wastes in New Brunswick. 
CIMBull., V. 70, No. 781, 1977, pp. 112-119. 

The authors' purpose was to describe the previous reclamation program and the recla- 
mation plan that is being developed for the future for the Minto Coalfield in New 
Brunswick, Canada. A good description of the spoil physical and chemical properties 
is presented. The initial reclamation program involved planting 3.84 million trees 
on 4,600 acres. Most of the plantings took place on ungraded spoil banks. These 
initial plantings provided the following information (1) The afforestation program 
did not allow for ultimate land use; (2) the growth-limiting factors were high ex- 
changeable acidity, low pH, high levels of salts, active aluminum, and heavy metals; 
(3) bare-root stock tree seedlings had better survival when planted in the spring and 
the local stock had the best survival; and (4) tree planting provides a relatively 
inexpensive cover. Future reclamation of the Minto Coalfield will aim at restoring 
the land to an aesthetically pleasing state while allowing for maximum productivity. 
The authors conclude that an important key to the successful afforestation of the 
Minto Coalfield is soil improvement. 

2. Abbott, R. D. , D. J. Dollhopf, and A. M. Janney. Evaluation of Overburden Sam- 
pling Intensity in Mined Land Reclamation. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 3, 1982, 
pp. 255-269. 

This paper examines drilling intensities in order to provide a better understanding 
of what accuracy can be expected when characterizing overburden material from a 
strip-mined area located near Colstrip, MT. Three physiochemical parameters — soluble 
salts, clay, and nickel — were used to assess the ability of a sample drill site to 
characterize the overburden at different distances. Assessments were based on a lo- 
gistic model which represented the probability of an accurate inhibitory characteri- 
zation of overburden as a function of distance between a predicting sample and the 
region to be characterized. This relationship was qualified by an additional analy- 
sis which was used to help select a threshold distance within which the accuracy of 
characterizing the overburden is significantly improved by decreasing the distance 
between the overburden and the drill site. Beyond this distance accurate characteri- 
zation of overburden material occurs by chance alone and is not influenced by the lo- 
cation of the overburden. The chance of an accurate prediction of inhibitory status 
can exceed 0.70 for regions of overburden that are close to a sample drill site or be 
as low as 0.25 with increasing distance from the drill site. The probabilities found 
for the strip-mined area near Colstrip reflected a degree of homogeneity in the phys- 
iochemical parameters of the overburden. The probabilities found help to indicate 
what handling procedures are needed to properly redistribute overburden material 
found to be toxic in some physiochemical parameter. The threshold distance indicates 
how far away use of the special handling procedures should be considered. The infor- 
mation presented in this paper offers insight into what can be expected from predict- 
ing inhibitory characteristics of overburden based on the material sampled from a 
drill site. 

3. Abdnor, J. S. The Study of Reclamation Standards for Surface Mining of Miner- 
als Other than Coal (COSMAR). Paper in Western Land Use Regulation and Mined Land 
Reclamation Institute. Rocky Mount. Min. Law Found., Boulder, CO, 1979, pp. 9.1- 
9.19. 

This article provides an excellent historical review of the evolution of Federal sur- 
face mining and reclamation regulations between 1965 and 1979. The author stresses 
the participation of the American Mining Congress in this process through the Com- 
mittee on Surface Mining and Reclamation (COSMAR) organized by the Board of Mineral 
and Energy Resources of the Commission on Natural Resources of the National Research 



52 

Council. The issue of states' rights is discussed. The author approaches the sub- 
ject from a broad nationwide perspective, but points out the need for regional 
considerations . 

4. Adams, L. M. , J. P. Capp, and E. Eisentrout. Reclamation Of Acidic Coal-Mine 
Spoil With Fly Ash. BuMines RI 7504, 1971, 29 pp. 

Plots were established at two sites on acidic mine spoil in northern West Virginia. 
Varying tonnages of fly ash were applied to the plots at both sites. Several woody 
and herbaceous species were evaluated in order to determine growth potential in spoil 
with adverse chemical and physical properties. Fly ash additions improved soil tex- 
ture, increased soil pH to tolerable levels for some herbaceous species, and in- 
creased available soil water. However, tree and shrub survival was poor even with 
the addition of fly ash to the mine spoil. 

5. Adolphson, R. V., P. R. Schulz , and K. K. Dykeman. New Equipment Developments 
for Steep Slope/High Altitude Revegetation. Paper in Proceedings: High-Altitude Re- 
vegetation Workshop No. 5, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 
1982. CO Water Blesources Res. Inst., CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Information 
Series No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 50-57. 

The authors describe several pieces of revegetation equipment under development at 
the USDA-Forest Service Equipment Development Center, San Dimas, CA. The systems in- 
clude (1) a steep slope containerized tree and/or shrub planter, (2) a steep slope 
seeder, (3) a liquid fertilizer spray system for use with pickup trucks, and (4) a 
hill-climbing machine capable of working on rugged, steep, rocky, and inaccessible 
work sites. Operational test results and cost comparison analyses for the first 
three equipment systems are included. The first three equipment systems have appli- 
cation in surface coal mine revegetation operations nationwide. 

6. Agricultural Research. Strip Mining Without Harming the Environment. V. 27, 
No. 6, 1978, pp. 10-14. 

Several factors that affect the reclamation of western coal mines are discussed. 
General descriptions are given of research currently being conducted in Colorado, 
Wyoming, and North Dakota. Of particular interest to researchers in the West are 
topsoil replacement, water quality, water utilization, plant species selection, 
planting methods, soil nutrient relations, irrigation, fertilization, and the effects 
of animal grazing on revegetated areas. The goal of these research projects is not 
only to restore lands to a productive site but to improve them whenever possible. 

7. Albrecht, C. S., and E. R. Thompson. Impact of Surface Mining on Soil Compac- 
tion in the Midwestern U.S.A. (contract J0208016, Hittman Associates, Inc.). BuMines 
OFR 174-82, Feb. 1982, 303 pp.; NTIS PB 83-120 170. 

The objective of this study was to evaluate the soil compaction that occurs dur- 
ing surface mining and reclamation activities in the midwestern area of the United 
States. The areas used in the study had been designated prime farmland. The study 
site locations included the Brazil Mine in Indiana, the Captain Mine in Illinois, the 
Delta Mine in Illinois, and the Power Mine in Missouri. Moist bulk densities of nat- 
ural and replaced soils were measured and compared for the top 48 in of the soil pro- 
files. Fertility of the topsoil was also assessed for natural and replaced soils. 
A case study for each mine site based on field sampling and observations is pro- 
vided. The report assesses the regulations in the prime farmland reclamation efforts 
throughout the Interior Coal Mining Region recognized in this evaluation process. 

8. Alder, G. M. , and Z. S. Wochok. Cloning: A Prescription Approach to Revege- 
tation. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Symposium, Coal Conference and 
Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 23-25, 1979). McGraw-Hill, 1979, 
pp. 160-164. 



53 

This paper provides general comments on the applicability of plant tissue culture 
technology as a tool for revegetation of disturbed lands. The application of new 
technologies and planting are stressed. 

9. Alderdice, L. , and D. H. Graves. Vegetative Response to Topsoil Versus 
Alternative Growth Materials in a Four-Year Old Study in Kentucky. Paper in 1983 
Symposium Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, 
Nov. 28-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 497-501. 

This study investigated the response of a diverse vegetative cover to various types 
and rates of mulch treatments and topsoil replacement levels on mine spoil located in 
Breathitt County, KY. The effect of these treatments on the availability of various 
plant nutrients was also studied. The study showed no significant differences be- 
tween treatments and total biomass produced after four growing seasons. Percent 
cover was not significantly affected by treatment after three growing seasons. The 
pH values of the amendment-spoil interface also had no significant effect on vegeta- 
tive cover or biomass production. Bark treatments resulted in higher nitrogen and 
phosphorus values with the nitrogen levels being highly correlated to cover and 
biomass yield. Potassium levels were greater in the wood fiber mulch, pelletized 
leaves, bark-chicken manure, and bark-sewage sludge treatments. With proper site 
preparation and spoil amendments, a more suitable medium for successful plant es- 
tablishment is created, which results in greater percent ground cover and plant 
productivity . 

10. Alderdice, L., R. L. Howard, and D. H. Graves. Possible Treatments as Alter- 
natives to Topsoil Replacement on Surface Mine Sites. Paper in 1981 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 
1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 251-255. 

This paper reports the results of 13 topsoil modifications, amendments, and substi- 
tutes tested in eastern Kentucky. The results suggest some of the methods could 
support significantly faster establishment and maintenance of permanent ground cover. 

11. Aldon, E. F. Endomycorrhizae Enhance Shrub Growth and Survival on Mine 
Spoils. Ch. in Reclamation of Disturbed Arid Lands, Univ. NM Press, 1978, pp. 174- 
179. 

The author discusses the importance of vesicular-arbuscular endomycorrhizae on the 
growth and yield of 14 shrub species common to the arid regions of the Southwest. 
Fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canes cens (Pursch.) Nutt.) and rubberrabbit brush ( Chrys- 
othamnus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt.) were established in the greenhouse, and endomycor- 
rhizae enhance shrubs showed significant increases in growth and yield when inocu- 
lated with Glomus mosseae and Glomus fusciculatus , respectively. A field trial using 
fourwing saltbush inoculated with Glomus mosseae , on coal mine spoil in western New 
Mexico, showed that after 2 years growth and survival were significantly better on 
plants grown in the spoil inoculated with Glomus mosseae than in spoil not infected. 
These studies show the importance that endomycorrhizal fungi have on the growth and 
survival of shrub species planted on surface mine spoil in New Mexico. 

12. Aldon, E. F. Reclamation of Coal-Mined Land in the Southwest. J. Soil Water 
Conserv., v. 33, No. 2, 1978, pp. 75-79. 

This general article describes the revegetation techniques that were utilized to re- 
claim the major coal mines of New Mexico and Arizona. Information is presented on 
the soils, climate, and natural vegetation of the area. The species that had the 
most promise for future use in reclamation in the Southwest were alkali sacaton 
( Sporobolus airoides , (Torr.) Torr.), western wheatgrass ( Agropyron smithii Rydb.), 
fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens , (Pursch.) Nutt), and Indian ricegrass ( Ory- 
zopsis hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.) Ricker). Planting methods (direct seeding and 



54 

transplanting), amendments (organics, topsoiling, mulches, and fertilizers), and ir- 
rigation are other revegetation techniques that were discussed. The author concludes 
with a list of eight items that are directly concerned with the physical success of 
surface rehabilitation and revegetation. 

13. Aldon, E. F. Techniques for Establishing Native Plants on Coal Mine Spoils in 
New Mexico. Paper in Third Symposixim on Surface Mining and Reclamation, Volume 1 
(Louisville, KY, Oct. 21-23, 1975). Natl. Coal Assoc, Washington, DC, 1975, pp. 21- 
28. 

Seed application, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and water harvesting methods 
are highlighted in establishing selected native species. 

14. Aldon, E. F. and C. P. Pase. Plant Species Adaptability on Mine Spoils in 
the Southwest: A Case Study. U.S. For. Ser. Rocky Mount. For. and Range Exper. Sta. 
Res. Note RM-398, Apr. 1981, 3 pp. 

This research note briefly presents the results of a study initiated in 1973 to eval- 
uate the adaptability of several native grass and shrub species at the McKinley Mine 
in New Mexico. Fourteen species of native and introduced 3-month-old perennials were 
transplanted and watered-in at the minesite. Initial survival was checked in 1973, 
and then survival rates were checked in 1974, 1978, and 1979. Of the 14 species 
tested, five native and one introduced species showed high survival rates (67 to 100 
pet), good vigor, and propagation by seed or rhizomes into adjacent areas. Survival 
rates and climatic data are detailed in the research note. 

15. Aldon, E. F. , D. G. Scholl, and C. P. Pase. Establishing Cool Season Grasses 
on Mine Spoils. Paper in Symposium on Watershed Management 1980 (Boise, ID, July 21- 
23, 1980). Am. Soc. Civil Eng. , 1980, pp. 91-97. 

Several surface reclamation treatments were tested on experimental plots and on large 
demonstration areas at a coal strip mining operation about 40 miles west of Raton in 
northeastern New Mexico. The best combination of treatments for the establishment of 
western wheatgrass ( Agropyron smithii Rydb.) and Russian wildrye ( Elymus junceus 
Fisch.) utilized contour furrowing, seed drilling, and straw mulching. Plant density 
for this combination of treatments was 43 grass plants per square meter on the clay- 
loam topsoiled material. The results and discussion contained in this paper are di- 
rectly pertinent to the southern portion of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Region and 
may find application over a broader geographical area. 

16. Allaire, P. N. Coal Mining Reclamation in Appalachia: Low Cost Recommenda- 
tions to Improve Bird/Wildlife Habitat. Paper in The Mitigation Symposium: 
A National Workshop on Mitigating Losses of Fish and Wildlife Habitats (CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, July 16-20, 1979). U.S. For. Ser. Rocky Mount. For. and 
Range Exp. Sta., GTR RM-65, 1979, pp. 245-251. 

This paper reviews studies dealing with the wildlife management potential of re- 
claimed surface mineland with particular reference to mountaintop removal mining 
techniques. Bird species utilization data collected from reclaimed surface coal 
mines in eastern Kentucky over a 4-year period are discussed. Based on these data 
the author suggests five low-cost recommendations for improvement of bird and/or 
wildlife habitat on reclaimed surface mines. The information and discussion are gen- 
eral in nature but have specific application to the reclamation area mined by the 
mountaintop removal methods in the Eastern Coal Mining Region recognized in this 
evaluation process. 

17. Allaire, P. N. Comparisons of Game and Nongame Management Models: Cost Anal- 
ysis of Post-Mining Land Use Options for Wildlife. Paper in 1980 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 1-5, 
1980). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1980, pp. 315-323. 



55 

This paper relates the results of a survey conducted to establish costs for coal mine 
reclamation in eastern Kentucky for wildlife. A comparative cost analysis of six 
wildlife models (three for game animals and three for nongame animals) was based on 
cost estimates provided by the coal industry through a survey questionnaire. 

18. Allaire, P. N. Short Courses Presented Nov. 17, 1983 in Lexington, KY, Off. 
for Inform. Serv. and Tech. Liaison, Iron Works Pike, Box 13015, Lexington, KY 
40512. 

These wildlife-oriented short course materials consisted of two handouts: Post- 
Mining Land Use: The Wildlife Option, and Vegetation Analysis Survey. Both handouts 
consist of a combination of course notes and printed information dealing with the 
subjects. The Wildlife Option course presents information on the methods and proce- 
dures to plan and establish wildlife habitat areas on reclaimed surface coal mines, 
primarily in Kentucky. It reviews state and Federal regulations, the principles of 
ecology, various guides and case studies on revegetation, and exercises to implement 
all the principles discussed in the course. The Vegetation Analysis Survey course 
deals with methods and procedures to meet the vegetation analysis requirements for 
wildlife under Kentucky primacy. Although specific to Kentucky, the principles dis- 
cussed in these short courses have much wider geographic application for the estab- 
lishment and enhancement of wildlife habitat. Extensive reference lists are also 
provided. 

19. Allen, E. B. The Role of Mycorrhizae in Mined Land Diversity. Paper in the 
Third Biennial Symposiimi on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains 
(cochaired by the Rec. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19- 
21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 273-295. 

This paper is an excellent review of pertinent literature focusing on the importance 
of mycorrhizae to the physiology and ecology of reclamation plants and how these re- 
lationships may affect diversity on mined lands. The problems and solutions of main- 
taining and introducing vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae are discussed. The author 
states that mycorrhizae may improve the ability of desirable species to compete with 
weeds and increase the rate of succession from a weed stage to a stable, diverse com- 
munity. This paper is an excellent reference on this topic and is pertinent to re- 
vegetation of reclaimed minelands on much of the North Great Plains and Rocky Moun- 
tain Coal Mining Regions. 

20. Allen, E. B. The Competitive Effects of Introduced Annual Weeds on Some Na- 
tive and Reclamation Species in the Powder River Basin, WY. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. WY, 
Laramie, WY, Dec. 1979, 189 pp. 

The results of four different experiments are discussed in four separate chapters of 
this thesis. The experiments were designed to examine the effects of introduced 
weeds on certain native species, several species used for mined land reclamation, and 
the early stages of succession following disturbance. In the first experiment three 
native prairie sites were disced at three distances from introduced weed seed sources 
to examine the effect of distance on weed colonization and competition between weeds 
and native species. The second experiment looked at competition between saltwort 
( Salsola kali L.) and the native grasses western wheatgrass ( Agropyron simithii 
Rydb.) and blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K. ) Lag.) under two water regimes in 
the greenhouse. Another greenhouse study looked at germination and competition of 
Salsola kali and native grasses Agropyron smithii and Bouteloua gracilis under two 
water regimes in the greenhouse. Another greenhouse study looked at germination and 
competition of Salsola kali and the same two grasses and the native annuals pep- 
pergrass ( Lepidium densiflorum Schrad.) and narrow-leaved goosefoot ( Chenopodium 
practericola Rydb.) at three temperature regimes. Finally, the fourth experiment 



56 

examined weed colonization and plant water relations during the first 2 years of 
stripmine reclamation. 

21. Amendola, F, A., M. D. Mitchell, and D. W. Simpson. Reclamation of Tree and 
Shrub Species at the Absaloka Mine. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface 
Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Rec. Res. Unit, MT 
State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. 
OSM, 1984, pp. 237-250. 

This paper describes a number of techniques developed by Westmoreland Resources, 
Inc. , for the establishment of ponderosa pine and deciduous tree-shrub thicket commu- 
nities on reclaimed mined land. These studies were conducted at the Absaloka Mine, 
approximately 75 miles east of Billings, MT. Recent plantings of ponderosa pine 
( Pinus ponderosa Laws.) employing standardized procedures that consider north aspect, 
steep slopes, coarse soil texture, furrowing and delayed seeding of herbaceous spe- 
cies exhibited high survival rates. Containerized seedlings are reported to perform 
better than bare-root seedlings. The program for establishing deciduous tree and 
shrub thicket communities is in its initial stages and is continuing. The informa- 
tion conveyed by this paper is pertinent to major portions of the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

22. Amidon, T. E. , J. P. Barnett, H. P. Gallagher, and J. M. McGilvray. A Field 
Test of Containerized Seedlings Under Drought Conditions. Paper in Proceedings of 
the Southern Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Conference (Savannah, GA, Aug. 25-27, 
1981). U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-37, June 1982, pp. 139-144. 

The results of a field test planting of containerized longleaf ( Pinus palustris 
Mill.) and loblolly ( Pinus taeda L.) pine seedlings in Louisiana and Texas are de- 
tailed in this paper. The survival and early performance of the seedlings produced 
in four different types of containers on two soils during two planting seasons were 
monitored. Survival, height, and root collar diameter data were taken. A severe 
drought caused serious losses of seedlings planted during that growing season 
but showed the advantages the seedlings planted the previous growing season had over 
the younger seedlings. Results showed that containerized seedlings survive better 
than bare-root stock, and that there were significant differences between types of 
containers used. Also, longleaf pine was more sensitive to container type than lob- 
lolly pine. 

23. Ammons , J. T. Minesoil-Properties, Root Growth and Land Use Implications. 
Ph.D. Thesis, WV Univ., Morgantown, WV, 1979, 221 pp. 

Minesoil profiles from the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions were character- 
ized morphologically, chemically, and physically and related to root patterns. Field 
water conditions are related to properties of minesoil classes. Variability of map- 
pable polypedons was examined. Root behavior of several plant species in response to 
soil morphology, as well as to physical and chemical properties is illustrated with 
scaled root sketches and photographs. Classification of minesoils is stressed and 
supported by an economic analysis comparing classified minesoils to natural soils for 
alternative cropping systems. A review of pertinent literature is included. 

24. Ammons, J. T. , and E. F. Perry. The Relationship of Overburden Analysis to 
Minesoil Properties in Post Mining Land Use. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Recla- 
mation Symposium, Coal Conference and Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, 
Oct. 23-25, 1979). McGraw-Hill, 1979, pp. 170-176. 

The paper discusses the role of material characterization in premining planning to 
allow the selection and placement of the chemically and physically superior materials 
as topsoil in postmining reclamation activities. 



57 

25. Amundsen, C. C. Dynamics of the Recovery of Damaged Tundra Vegetation: Pre- 
liminary Results of Revegetation Experiments of Martina Tundra With Elymus Mollis on 
Adak Island, Alaska (U.S. DOE contract DE-A505-04180) . U.S. DOE, Prog. Rep., DOE/EV/ 
04180-9, Aug. 1982, 38 pp. 

This report discusses the interim results of a study designed to examine the poten- 
tial of dunegrass ( Elymus mollis Trin.) for revegetating natural and man-caused dis- 
turbed areas on Adak Island, part of the Aleutian Islands Chain of Alaska. The study 
also considered a number of propagation methods and planting situations. Trans- 
planted plants exhibited a survival rate of greater than 90 pet for 3 years on a va- 
riety of soil types. Sprigs consisting of shoots, rhizomes, and roots may be trans- 
planted either by burial of rhizome and roots in the soil or by attachment of these 
portions to the surface of the soil. Estimates of short-term reclamation success 
could be made from the survival rates observed 2 to 3 months following transplanting. 
The section 3 cm above and below the leaf sheath of the plant is critical for vegeta- 
tive propagation. Time of transplanting was not significantly different during July, 
August, and early September. Plant vigor was observed to be higher on higher density 
plots, with a spacing of 15 cm being optimal. These higher plant densities enhanced 
soil stabilization and retention. Rhizome lengths of 6 cm were adequate for sprigs 
used in revegetation. The results and discussions contained in this report are rele- 
vant to revegetation efforts in coastal northern (maritime) portions of Alaska. 

26. Anderson, A. T. Evaluating the Environmental Effects of Past and Present Sur- 
face Mining: A Remote Sensing Applied Research Review. Paper in 14th International 
Symposium on Remote Sensing of the Environment, v. 1, Environ Res. Inst. MI, 1980, 
pp. 275-278. 

The author reviews the use of remote sensing in the regulation of surface coal mining 
operations and the reclamation of previously abandoned mined lands. Four current re- 
mote sensing projects, that are monitoring reclamation practices are given. These 
projects include (1) development of a monitoring system that utilizes Landsat satel- 
lite technology, (2) aerial photographic monitoring, (3) national high-altitude aer- 
ial photography, and (4) western surface mine aerial coverage. The author states 
that remote sensing has a definite role in ensuring that surface mine reclamation 
regulations are met. 

27. Anderson, C. E., and J. M. Briggs. Planning Erosion Control for Coal Mining 
and Reclamation. J. Soil Water Conserv. , v. 34, No. 5, 1979, pp. 234-236. 

This article describes the methods used to reduce off-site sediment losses and ero- 
sion of terraces that were constructed at the Iowa Coal Project Demonstration Mine in 
southeastern Iowa. One year after the completion of the restoration work, sediment 
discharge had no effect on water quality and there was no apparent erosion on the 
terraces. However, soil compaction and drainage were problems that needed to be re- 
solved if row-crop farming was to be successful on the site. The cost of erosion and 
drainage control during mining was less than 1 pet of the total cost of mining and 
the cost of reclamation was about 16 pet of the total. 

28. Anderson, C. P. Concurrent Establishment of Hardwood Tree Seedlings and Low 
Ground Cover on Reclaimed Mineland. M.S. Thesis, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, 109 pp. 

This study compared site productivity of surface-mined land and an unmined reference 
area in Sullivan County, IN. Comparisons were made on the establishment of a herba- 
ceous ground cover and hardwood tree seedlings planted concurrently using the same 
levels of management on both sites. Tree and herbaceous species used were black wal- 
nut (Juglans nigra L.), northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), K-31 fescue (Festuca 



58 

arundinacea Shreb.), and red clover ( Trifoliun pratense L.) Different seedling pro- 
duction methods were evaluated, and chemical plant control was utilized as a means of 
reducing competition and improving seedling survival and growth. Soil physical and 
chemical properties were also analyzed, and comparisons were made between the two 
sites. The results Indicate that herbaceous ground cover was adequate on the mine- 
site, meeting the reclamation requirements of Public Law 95-87. However, above- 
ground blomass production was significantly higher on the reference site (6,152.8 
kg/ha) than on the mine site (2,785.6 kg/ha) after two growing seasons. Tree survi- 
val was also significantly higher on the reference area. However, with herbicide 
treatment tree survival increased significantly on the mine site. 

29. Anderson, C. P., P. E. Pope, W. R. Byrenes, W. R. Chaney, and B. H. Bussler. 
Hardwood Tree Establishment in Low Plant Cover on Reclaimed Mlneland. Paper in Third 
Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., 
Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madlsonvllle Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 
2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 158-170. 

A reclaimed surface-mined site was compared to an unmined reference site to evaluate 
the effectiveness of reclaiming land in accordance with Public Law 95-87, the Surface 
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Both sites were located in Sullivan 
County, IN. Establishment success of grass and/or herbaceous ground cover and hard- 
wood seedlings planted concurrently and maintained under the same level of management 
was used to compare site productivity of the reclaimed and the unmined areas. Bare- 
root and containerized seedlings of black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) and northern red 
oak ( Quercus rubra L.) were planted on each site along with a cover crop of K-31 fes- 
cue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb .) and red clover ( Trifollum pratense L.). One-half 
of each treatment combination was treated with herbicide (mixture of amlzlne and 
dalapon) to control low ground cover plants and to assess the competitive effects of 
ground cover on hardwood seedling establishment and growth. The topsoil of the re- 
claimed mlneland had higher bulk density and lower organic matter content than the 
topsoil of the reference area. The topsoil of both sites exhibited similar pH. Mean 
ground cover percent and overall hardwood seedling survival after two growing seasons 
was sufficient to meet requirements specified by Public Law 95-87 for forest land. 
After 2 years of growth on the reclaimed mines Ite, individual container-grown seed- 
ings exhibited higher survival rates than bare-root seedlings. Black walnut Seedling 
survival and growth were improved by herbicide application to control competing grass 
and herbaceous ground cover. Similar treatments had no significant effect on red oak 
survival or growth. Red oak seedings generally exhibited lower survival and net 
growth than black walnut seedlings. The results reported in this study are pertinent 
to the Interior Coal Mining Region recognized In this evaluation process. However, 
with prudent consideration they could find application in planning reclamation activ- 
ities over a slightly broader geographical area. 

30. Anderson, R. Land Imprinting; A Revegetation Concept With Reclamation Poten- 
tial. Landmarc, Sept. 1981, pp. 8-11. 

The concept of land imprinting, a technique developed for reclaiming overgrazed 
grasslands in arid or semlarld regions. Is presented as a possible mlneland reclama- 
tion tool. The object of land imprinting is to create Impressions In the soil where 
sparse rainfall will be collected, making maximum use of rainfall and allowing seeds 
to germinate and survive during drought periods. Land imprinting equipment developed 
by the Department of Agriculture in Arizona is described. Because grazing has a very 
low economic return per unit of land, no more than $30 or $40 per acre can be in- 
vested in revegetatlng grassland. The equipment described damages or destroys exist- 
ing vegetation, creates Impressions in the soil, and also broadcasts seed. Revegeta- 
tion can then be accomplished very inexpensively. The author suggests developing a 
self-propelled imprinter for mlneland reclamation purposes. 



59 

31. Andreuzzi, F. C. Reclaiming Strip Mined Land for Recreational Use in Lacka- 
wanna County, PA. BuMines IC 8718, 1976, 21 pp. 

This paper covers a demonstration of a 125-acre reclamation project on abandoned an- 
thracite coal spoil in Lackawanna County, PA. The land use plan developed by the 
Bureau of Mines consisted of utilizing the area for public recreation, historical 
purposes and educational facilities. As a park the project serves as a prototype for 
reclaiming existing and future surface-mined lands. 

32. Argonne National Laboratory. Land Reclamation Program, Annual Report, 1978. 
ANL/LRP-5, July 1979, 110 pp. 

This annual report describes the Argonne Land Reclamation Program and reviews several 
ongoing or recently completed field and laboratory studies. Preliminary results, 
accomplishments, and planned future activities are presented for the Jim Bridger Mine 
Project in southwest Wyoming; the Bighorn Mine- Tongue River Project near Sheridan, 
WY; the Navajo Mine Project - Breeding and Selection of Plant Materials for Mined 
Land Reclamation conducted at Brigham Young University; the Macaoupin County Refuse 
Reclamation Project near Staunton, XL; the evaluation of selected overburden materi- 
als and management techniques for returning surface-mined land to row crop produc- 
tion (Burning Star Mine #3 in Randolph County, XL); the Eastern Project consider- 
ing impacts of surface coal mining throughout that region; and the Alaska Project 
considering coal mining impacts throughout that State. The information presented in 
these discussions is primarily relevant to the coal mining regions in which the proj- 
ects are located. The report was evaluated as a whole. Reference to a particular 
keyword used in the evaluation process may not be found in each research project 
description. 

33. Argonne National Laboratory and Ford, Bacon Davis and Utah. Characterization 
of Uranium Tailings Cover Materials for Radon Flux Reduction (Appendix B, Character- 
istics of Plant Species Selected, Plant Growth as a Factor in Radon Gas Leakage From 
Uranium Mill Tailings, by Native Plants, Inc.). U.S. Nuclear Reg. Comm. , NUREG/CR- 
1081, Mar. 1980, 153 pp. 

This addendum describes a study conducted by Native Plants, Inc., that was designed 
to help determine whether or not soil-covered uranium tailings would leak radon gas 
via root channels of deep-rooted plants. The paper was reviewed and included in this 
bibliography for its unique experimental design. Test plants were grown in large 
containers. The growth medium was put into the containers to simulate actual re- 
claimed field conditions. These containers were then placed in a greenhouse where 
climatic conditions could be controlled. The results of this study are specific for 
the project. However, the methods and experimental design used should be applicable 
nationwide. 

34. Arora, H. S., C. E. Pugh, J. B. Dixon, and L. R. Hossner. Pyrite and Acidity 
Formation. Ch. in Reclamation of Surface Mined Lignite Spoil in Texas. TX Agric. 
Exp. Sta., College Station, TX, 1980, pp. 22-35. 

This article contains a review on pyrite morphology and reactivity and the results of 
a field study conducted to determine the concentration and location of pyrite samples 
collected from Milan and Freestone Counties, TX. Each sample was examined to deter- 
mine the location, concentration, morphology, and reactivity of the pyritic materials 
present. Total sulfur content was between 0.30 and 16.79 pet on a freeze-dried- 
weight basis. Xron sulfides and organic sulfur were the major sulfur components. Up 
to 60 pet of the total sulfur content may be in the pyritic form (iron sulfides). 
Fluctuations in sulfur content were due to fluctuations in the pyrite content. The 
establishment of vegetative cover is difficult when oxidation of pyritic materials 
occurs. 



60 

35. Arthur, J. D. Novel Spreaders Aid Reclamation. Coal Age, v. 85, No. 7, 1980, 
pp. 92-94. 

The author describes two devices that were designed by mine personnel to spread mine 
soil at two Illinois surface mines. The first device, used at the Rapatee Mine near 
Farmlngton, IL, consists of a 33-foot-long by 16-lnch-wlde steel H-beam with four 30- 
by 11-ln rectangular holes cut out of the web. Inverted V-shaped cutouts along the 
bottom of the front and rear flanges provide teeth for breaking up and furrowing the 
soil. Soil penetration Is about 2 to 3 In. This spreader-sacrlf ler Is used to 
spread topsoll and cut furrows for subsequent seeding. The second device, used at 
Amax's Sunspot Mine near Ipava, IL, is constructed of I-beams welded to form an open 
rectangular unit measuring 25.5 by 7.5 ft. The front of this piece of equipment can 
penetrate the soil to a depth of 10 in. This spreader is used to distribute topsoll, 
subsoil, and cast overburden. Both pieces of equipment created uniform drainage sur- 
faces that eliminated low areas and pockets of water. 

36. Asay, K. H. Breeding Grasses for Revegetatlon of Surface Mining Spoils in 
Western U.S.A. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (Based on 
the Int. Congress for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12- 
16, 1978). Pergamon, 1978, pp. 1007-1011. 

This paper reviews grass breeding programs being conducted by State and Federal agen- 
cies in the Western United States and specifically discusses species and interspe- 
cific hybrids included in growth trials at the Decker, MT mine site. 

37. Asay, K. H. Grasses for Revegetatlon of Surface Mining Areas in Western 
U.S. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Symposium, Coal Conference and 
Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 21-23, 1975). McGraw-Hill, 1979, 
pp. 155-159. 

This paper provides an excellent review of breeding programs for native, introduced, 
and interspecific hybridized grasses and includes numerous successful examples of 
these types of plant materials. 

38. Ashby, W. C. Is Good for Corn Good for Trees? Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post- 
Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL 
Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 15-18. 

While reclaiming areas with trees is supported by regulations, it often loses out to 
other land uses. This article examines why areas in Illinois that could be reclaimed 
for forestry purposes are instead reclaimed for farmland. The author advocates a 
new regulatory reclamation formula that Includes mlnesolls truly "capable of tree 
production." 

39. Ashby, W. C, and C. A. Kolar. Productivity With Trees and Crops on Surface- 
Mined Lands. Pres. at SME-AIME Fall Meeting, Denver, CO, Nov. 1981. SME-AIME pre- 
print 81-342, 5 pp. 

Productivity of reclaimed land Is discussed with respect to cropland, pastureland, 
and forestry uses. Productivity of mined land is compared with that of nonmlned land 
using various site preparation techniques. Current Federal and State regulations are 
thought to be the cause of decreased productivity on mined land. 

40. Ashby, W. C. , C. A. Kolar, M. L. Guerke, C. F. Pursell, and J. Ashby. Our 
Reclamation Future With Trees. Coal Extraction and Utilization Res. Cent., South. IL 
Univ., Carbondale, IL, Aug. 1978, 99 pp. 

This document examines the history of forest reclamation in five Illinois coal dis- 
tricts from the first voluntary work through the authors' survey of 30-year-old strip 
mine plantations. This survey confirmed the sustained and enhanced timber production 
over a 30-year period. The results were Incorporated into a discussion on what is 



61 

known about growing trees on strip-mined lands in Illinois. Several hardwood and 
softwood species are recommended for Illinois surface-mined lands based on cumulative 
tree growth performance. Impacts of forestation as a reclamation alternative are al- 
so considered from environmental quality, recreational, educational, social, and eco- 
nomic viewpoints. A discussion on the effects of Illinois reclamation legislation, 
through the 1975 amendments to the Surface-Mined Land Conservation and Reclamation 
Act, on forestation efforts is presented. Evidence is given that the reclamation of 
coal mined lands with trees has benefited recreation, housing, education, wildlife, 
and timber production in Illinois . The authors conclude that tree planting is an in- 
tegral part of a multipurpose land use plan. 

41. Ashby, W. C, C. A. Kolar, and G. R. Philo. Reclamation With Trees. Paper in 
Annual Progress Report: July 1, 1980- June 30, 1981, Volume II, Research Development 
Summaries, Final Draft. Coal Extraction and Utilization Res. Cen. , South. IL Univ., 
Carbondale, IL, Mar. 1982, pp. 94-98. 

This report summarizes investigations conducted at the Sahara Coal Company's mlnesite 
in Saline County, IL. The studies were designed to evaluate revegetation performance 
for several kinds of trees on unmined lands, lands mined and ungraded, lands mined 
and graded, and lands mined and graded with the topsoil replaced. Fall and spring 
planting of seed and seedlings were tested. Additional studies on herbicides, super 
slurper, mycorrhizae, and containerized seedlings are described. The report also de- 
scribes studies conducted at the Freeman United Coal Mining Co. in Perry County, IL, 
designed to evaluate the reclamation potential of several kinds of trees and shrubs 
planted along with a herbaceous ground cover to control soil erosion. These studies 
included both field and greenhouse work emphasizing root system development. Few 
hard data are reported, and results are discussed in a general way. However, this 
summary does indicate a source of potentially useful information for revegetation 
planning. 

42. Ashby, W. C, N. F. Rogers, and C. A. Kolar. Forest Tree Invasion and Diver- 
sity on Strip Mines. Paper in Proceedings of Central Hardwood Forest Conference III 
(Columbia, MO, Sept. 16-17, 1980). Univ. MO, Columbia, MO, 1980, pp. 273-281. 

This study was conducted to inventory planted and volunteer trees on plots estab- 
lished 30 years earlier by the USDA Forest Service in Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, 
Kansas, and Oklahoma. Only in Indiana and southern Illinois did planted trees out- 
number volunteers. Volunteer trees greatly outnumbered planted trees in northern 
Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The number of invading trees ranged from 
17 in Oklahoma to 48 in Indiana. The six leading volunteer species were black locust 
( Robina pseudoacacia L.), elm ( Ulmus spp.), hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis L.), ash 
( Fraxinus spp.), black cherry ( Prunus serotlna Ehrh.), and boxelder ( Acer negundo 
L.). The major pioneer invaders on open sites after mining were cottonwood ( Populus 
deltoides Marsh.) and sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis L.). The characteristics of 
some of the common volunteer species are given. The factors that are important for 
tree invasion and forest diversity on surface-mined land are spoil physical and chem- 
ical characteristcs, type of forest cover, and the availability of seed or root 
suckers. 

43. Ashby, W. C, W. G. Vogel, and C. A. Kolar. Use of Nitrogen-Fixing Trees and 
Shrubs in Reclamation. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation with 
Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville 
Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, pp. 110-118. 

This article provides a relatively brief literature review on the use of nitrogen- 
fixing woody plants in reclamation. It is a good article for individuals charged 
with planning reclamation or reviewing reclamation plans. Included is a section on 



62 

the effects of present legal requirements on the use of nitrogen-fixing woody plants 
for reclamation. No specific coal region is identified by the authors. Based on the 
plant species mentioned and articles reviewed, this article is considered pertinent 
to the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions in this evaluation process. 

44. Askenasy, P. E. , L. R. Hossner, and E. L. Whiteley. Row Crop Production on 
Leveled Lignite Mine Spoil Banks. Ch. in Reclamation of Surface Mined Lignite Spoil 
in Texas. TX Agr. Exp. Sta. , College Station, TX, Rep. RM-10, 1980, pp. 48-56. 

This study was conducted to test the feasibility of using leveled mine spoil for row 
crop production on lignite spoils near Fairfield, TX. The species tested were "Texas 
28 A" corn ( Zea mays L. ) , "Top Hand" sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) , "Hill" 
soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.), and "Lee" soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.). Nine 
different nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizer treatments were used in cell combinations of 
0, 84, and 168 kg/ha N and 0, 56, and ,112 kg/ha P2O5. All row crops were grown suc- 
cessfully on the leveled mine spoil if proper fertilization and cultural practices 
were used. Grain sorghum was the most promising of the species tested and produced 
yields comparable to those for central Texas. For all species tested, P and N addi- 
tions significantly increased yields during the first year. However, only N addi- 
tions had an effect during the second and third years. The influence of the row 
crops on mine spoil nutrient content and pH was also evaluated during the 3-year 
s tudy . 

45. Bagley, F. L. Tree Planting-Strip-Mined Area in Maryland. Paper in Trees for 
Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE- 
61, 1980, pp. 27-33. 

This paper is divided into four sections which deal with the use of tree species for 
reclaiming surface mined lands in western Maryland. Part I contains the requirements 
that must be met to ensure successful tree plantings on surface-mined areas. Part II 
deals with the mechanics of planting trees on mined land. Part III lists the herba- 
ceous species to be used in a seed mixture, along with seeding rates, when mined 
lands are reclaimed to (1) hayland and cropland, (2) forestry when tree seedlings 
are used to establish forest lands, (3) forestry when leguminous tree species are di- 
rect seeded, (4) forestry when nonleguminous tree species are direct seeded, and 
(5) wildlife plantings. Part IV of the paper lists the species that have been used 
successfully on Maryland surface-mined lands. 

46. Banaszak, K. J. Predicted Changes in the Mineralogy of Spoil as a Function of 
Net Neutralization Potential and Rate of Flushing. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mning, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 
1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 459-462. 

This research was conducted to assess the changes in the mineralogy of spoil material 
resulting from pyrite oxidation. In general the mineralogy of fresh spoil is a mix- 
ture of silicates, carbonates, and sulfides. The changes caused by pyrite oxidation 
are dependent upon the flushing time of acid water and the net neutralization poten- 
tial (NNP) of the spoil material. Slow flushing and low NNP favor a change in the 
silicates and the formation of sulfates. Fast flushing and high NNP results in lit- 
tle change in the silicates, but there is a loss of carbonates and hydroxides are 
produced from sulfides. Fast flushing and low NNP will create incomplete silicate 
alteration and a loss of metals from sulfides. Slow flushing and high NNP create a 
partial alteration of the silicates, and hydroxides are produced from sulfides. A 
computer simulation resulted in differing ratios of phases created or destroyed by 
reacting various waters with overburden mineralogies. When calcite continually re- 
acted with the solution, a final pH of 6.5 was achieved, and for every gram of pyrite 
oxidized 2.23 g of calcite and 0.003 g of 2:1 +-0-+ clay were destroyed and 0.7 g and 
0.001 g of goethite and gibbsite were formed, respectively. When calcite was absent. 



63 

the final solution pH was 4.0, and for every gram of pyrite oxidized 0.03 g of 2:1 
+-0-+ clay was destroyed and 0.7 g and 0.01 g of goethite and gibbsite were produced. 
The greatest destruction of soil is not the loss of 2:1 +-o-+ clays but the loss of 
cation exchange capacity by the precipitation of iron-aluminum floes. 

47. Barnett, J. P. Containerized Plants Regenerate Difficult Reclamation Sites. 
Coal Min. Process., July 1983, p. 26. 

This article provides a brief review of some aspects of using containerized plants 
for regeneration. It specifically refers to revegetation in the South and Southwest- 
ern United States, but the techniques discussed would apply nationwide. 

48. Barnhill, M. A. Endomycorrhizae in Some Nursery-Produced Trees and Shrubs on 
a Surface Mined Area. Tree Planters Notes, v. 32, No. 1, 1981, pp. 20-22. 

This study was designed to determine whether woody plants propagated under nursery 
practices (high nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization and frequent fumigation) were 
colonized with indigenous vasicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) , and, if so, whether 
the associations survived after outplanting on mine spoil. Root systems of seven 
1-year-old plants from each of 11 species were collected from a nursery. The nursery 
used summer cover cropping methods, fertilizer, and soil fumigation prior to fall 
seeding. In addition, seven plants each of seven species produced in the nursery 
and outplanted at the Ollis Creek Mine in Campbell County, TN, were collected. All 
plants were examined for degree of VAM infection. Results showed significant differ- 
ences in degree of infection between species, and infection was less extensive on 
plants collected at the minesite than on those grown in the nursery only. 

49. Barnhill, M. A., M. Cunningham, and R. E. Farmer, Jr. Germination Strategies 
in Aster Pilosus , Eupatorium Serotinum, and Solidago Altissima and Their Relation to 
Revegetation Systems. Reclam. Rev. Res., v. 2, No. 1, 1983, pp. 25-30. 

Requirements of light, temperature, and chilling for oldfield aster ( Aster pilosus 
Willd.), white snakeroot ( Eupatorium serotinum Michx.), and tall goldenrod ( Solidago 
altissima L.) were studied to provide the basis for direct-seeding strategies on 
mined land and to compare the germination strategies of these species. Seeds of the 
three species were collected from natural populations growing on mined land in Camp- 
bell County, TN. A study on the stratification requirements of the three species was 
conducted at 3° C using moist and dry conditions and storage in the dark for 0, 2, 
4 , or 8 weeks. At the end of each storage period a controlled-environmental growth 
chamber germination study was conducted in the light or dark, using the following 
temperature regimes: 5 to 15° C, 10 to 20° C, or 20 to 30° C. Germinated seeds were 
considered those that had radials at least 1 mm long. The results indicate that all 
three species have similar germination strategies. All three species required light 
and moderate to high temperatures for germination. Oldfield aster and white snake- 
root failed to germinate at low temperatures without stratification. The authors 
concluded that these three species could be directly seeded on mine soil after a min- 
imum stratification period of 8 weeks. This suggests that all three species could 
become established in southern Appalachia in the spring following a period of winter 
chilling. 

50. Barnhisel, R. I. Lime and Fertilizer Recommendations for Reclamation of 
Surface-Mined Spoils. Univ. KY, Dep. of Agronomy, Lexington, KY, AGR-40, (rev.), 
Oct. 1976, 4 pp. 

Recommendations are made for lime and fertilizer rates when a grass legume cover is 
established for erosion control when land use is projected as (1) timber, wildlife, 
or recreation, or (2) pasture or hay production. Three methods of determining lime 
requirements are discussed. 



64 

51. Barnhisel, R. I. Reclamation of Surface Mined Coal Spoils. U.S. EPA, EPA- 
MOn-11-032,, Aug. 1977, 57 pp. 

Field experiments were established on four types of surface-mined spoil that are 
commonly found in western Kentucky. The specific objectives of the study were to 
(1) determine the spoil chemical and physical properties and how these properties 
affect the establishment and survival of herbaceous cover, (2) develop a method of 
site preparation that will produce a stable microrelief with no adverse effects on 
spoil physical properties, and (3) evaluate different rates of lime incorporation 
into the spoil. The results show that when proper fertility levels are restored in 
combination with site preparation, mine spoils may be successfully reclaimed. 

52. Barnhisel, R. I., J. L. Powell, and G. W. Akin. Keys to Successful Reclama- 
tion in Western Kentucky. Paper in Third Sjnnposium on Surface Mining and Reclama- 
tion, Volume 2 (Louisville, KY, Oct. 21-23, 1975). Nat. Coal Assoc, Washington, 
D.C., 1975, pp. 140-151. 

This paper reports the results of four related studies investigating the effects of 
tillage methods used in site preparation, P fertilization, types of P fertilizers, 
vegetation renovation methods, and lime applications on establishing and maintaining 
acceptable vegetative cover. Five key factors for reclamation in western Kentucky 
are identified. 

53. Barrett, J., P. C. Deutsch, F. G. Ethridge, W. T. Franklin, R. D. Heil, D. B. 
McWhorter, and A. D. Youngberg. Procedures Recommended for Overburden and Hydrologic 
Studies of Surface Mines. U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-71, 1980, 106 pp. 

There were two objectives for this study. The first was to determine the required 
information to evaluate the soils, overburden, and hydrology of a site in order to 
make appropriate management decisions for the selection of lease sites , development 
of lease stipulations, and formulation of mining and reclamation plans. The second 
objective was to recommend cost-effective procedures for data acquisition and analy- 
sis associated with soils, overburden, and hydrologic studies. These objectives were 
achieved by defining soils, overburden, and hydrologic information requirements and 
by evaluating alternative approaches when available. Not all of the technology and 
information available for the study of soils, overburden, and hydrology were identi- 
fied. Only proven methods and procedures known to give good results are recommended 
for use. 

54. Barry, H. J., III. State-Federal Agreements, Programs, and Issues Under the 
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. Paper in Western Land Use Regulation and 
Mine Land Reclamation Institute. Rocky Mount. Min. Law Found., Boulder, CO, 1979, 
pp. 5.1-5.29. 

The author examines the status of selected Western State laws, regulations, agree- 
ments, and programs under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 
(SMCRA) as of 1979. He also provides a discussion of the past, present, and future 
issues between these Western States and the Federal Government, concerning the imple- 
mentation of SMCRA. The States considered are Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North 
Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. The article is included in this bibliography for the his- 
torical perspective it provides. 

55. Barth, R. C. Reclamation Practices in the Northern Great Plains Coal Prov- 
ince. Min. Congr. J., v. 63, No. 5, 1977, pp. 60-64. 

This article discusses the reclamation practices that are used in the Northern Great 
Plains Coal Province. Various components of reclamation are discussed, and infor- 
mation is included on site preparation, species selection and planting, and soil 
amendments. Plant productivity was found to be higher on mined land than on unmined 



65 

reference areas in the Northern Great Plains. This article contains little technical 
information, but it could serve as a reference to what reclamation practices have 
been used successfully in the Northern Great Plains Coal Province. 

56. Barth, R. C., and B. K. Martin. Soil-Depth Requirements To Reclaim Surface- 
Mined Areas in the Northern Great Plains (contract JO265025, CO Sch. Mines Res. 
Inst.). BuMines OFR 202-82, 1982, 19 pp.; NTIS PB 83-148221. 

Fourteen wedge-type field plots were established in North Dakota, Montana, and Wyo- 
ming to quantify soil depth requirements for reclamation of surface-mined land with 
perennial grasses. Plots were grouped into four types based on spoil chemical and 
physical properties and plant biomass. Results showed that precipitation and plant 
species determined soil depth requirements. 

57. Bartuska, A. M. , and G. E. Lang. Detrital Processes Controlling the Accumula- 
tion of Forest Floor Litter on Black Locust Revegetated Surface Mines in North Cen- 
tral West Virginia. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimen- 
tology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1981, pp. 359-365. 

Detrital processes were compared between a stand of black locust ( Robinia pseudoaca- 
cia L.) established on a reclaimed surface mine and a nearby mixed hardwood forest 
not disturbed by mining. Mean annual leaf litter deposition in the black locust 
stand was significantly less than in the mixed hardwood stand. However, forest lit- 
ter mass was greater in the black locust stand than in the mixed hardwood stand. 
Substrate chemistry, specifically the high concentration of liquid in black locust 
leaves as compared with sugar maple leaves, was believed to be responsible for lower 
microbial activity and consequent slower decomposition rates in the black locust 
stand, resulting in thicker accumulations of leaf litter. 

58. Beach, G. G. Do I Have an Alluvial Valley Floor? Paper in 1980 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 1-5, 
1980). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1980, pp. 97-101. 

This paper presents a method for identifying an alluvial valley floor within the con- 
text of the statutory language of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 
1977 and provides a list of pertinent infoirmation that should be collected in order 
to allow a test for the "developed land" classification within an alluvial valley 
floor. The methods were devised for use in Wyoming; however, the author suggests 
that they may be applicable to other western areas. 

59. Beach, G. G. Regulatory Reform in Wyoming. Paper in the Third Biennial Sym- 
posium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the 
Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT 
State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 1-7. 

This paper provides a brief description of the regulatory reform efforts underway in 
Wyoming to improve that State's rules regulating surface mining and mineland reclama- 
tion. Comparisons are made to OSM's new Federal regulations. 

60. Bell, J. C, D. F. Amos, and J. C. Parker. Evaluation of Slope Stability and 
Foundation Suitability for Four Southwestern VA Mine Spoils. Paper in 1983 Symposivim 
on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27- 
Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 549-554. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the stability of spoil banks and the suitability 
of reclaimed benches for shallow foundations in spoils located near Norton, VA, Mine 
spoils were analyzed for particle size distribution, particle density, shear strength 
parameters, compaction characteristics, and bulk density. The relative quantities of 



66 

sandstone and siltstone had a direct effect on the particle size distribution and 
shear strength of the spoil material. However, these quantities had little effect on 
the coarse fragment content and dry bulk density. Blasting, handling, and placement 
of spoil material during mining and reclamation were the most likely causes for the 
variations in coarse fragment content and dry bulk density. As soil compaction in- 
creased so did the shear strength of the <2-mm fraction of the spoil material. Of 
the spoil banks observed, several had inadequate safety factors against slope fail- 
ure. The authors feel that increased soil compaction, which will increase shear 
strength, or slope reduction will increase slope stability if drainage is adequate. 
Of the spoils observed, slope stability is largely dependent on the slope angle and 
the angle of internal friction. Due to the high variablility observed in bulk den- 
sity, differential settlement of conventional strip footings would occur, creating 
unsuitable foundation conditions. 

61. Bennett, 0. L. Potential for Reclamation and Revegetation of Eastern Strip 
Mine Spoils. Paper in C=Me^, Conservation, Materials, Environment, Energy (Proc. 
Third Int. Conf. on Environ. Problems of the Extractive Industries, Dayton, OH). The 
Wright Co., 1977, pp. 10.5.1-10.5.9. 

This paper provides a review of the anticipated impacts of the Surface Mining Control 
and Reclamation Act of 1977 on mineland reclamation and reclamation research. The 
author reviews the results of the major research efforts in mineland reclamation in 
the Eastern Coal Mining Region. This paper offers a good overview of reclamation re- 
search in this region conducted prior to 1977. 

62. Berg, W. A. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fertilization of Mined Lands. Paper in 
Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Lands? (Billings, MT, Mar 26-27, 1980). 
Soil Conserv. Soc. America, and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 20-1 to 20-8. 

This paper provides a concise discussion of the use of N fertilizer to establish op- 
timum vegetative cover and achieve species diversity. Straw mulching is assumed to 
increase the need for N fertilizer. The author suggests the use of test plots to es- 
tablish N requirements rather than depending on standard soil tests. He also states 
that the sodium bicarbonate extraction soil test for plant-available P seems to be a 
dependable guide for determining P status. 

63. Berg, W. A. Use of Soil Laboratory Analyses in Revegetation of Mined Lands. 
Min. Congr. J., Apr. 1975, pp. 32-35. 

This paper provides a concise discussion of the role soil tests can play as a manage- 
ment tool for evaluating revegetation potential of disturbed lands. 

64. Berry, C. R. Dried Sewage Sludge Improves Growth of Pines in the Tennessee 
Copper Basin. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. 195-201. 

This study was conducted to determine whether dried sewage sludge, interacting with 
Pisolithus tlnctorius (Pt) ectomycorrhizae, would improve survival and accelerate the 
early growth of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) , Virginia pine ( Pinus virginlana 
Mill.), and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) on severely eroded sites in the 
Tennessee Copper Basin. Four different treatments were used in this study, noninocu- 
lated (naturally inoculated by Thelephora terrestris ) or Pt mycorrhizal treatments 
combined factorially with sludge (34,000 kg/ha) or fertilizer (10-10-10, applied at 
a rate of 896 kg/ha) . All three tree species grew significantly better on plots 
amended with sludge than on those with fertilizer. Pt ectomycorrhizae failed to 
stimulate the growth of the pine species. This response is apparently due to the 
high application rates of fertilizer and sludge. The results of the study demon- 
strate that the growth responses of the pine species used in this study are improved 
on sites amended with sewage sludge. 



67 

65. Berry, C. R. Growth Response of Four Hardwood Tree Species to Spot Fertiliza- 
tion by Nutrient Tablets in the Tennessee Copper Basin. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, 
No. 3, 1983, pp. 167-175. 

The feasibility of using sewage sludge tablets and fertilizer tablets in order to 
achieve stand establishment of sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.), sawtooth oak 
( Quercus acutissima Carruth.), black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaert.), and black 
locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) was tested in the Tennessee Copper Basin. Six fer- 
tility treatments were used on each species and consisted of a control; sludge tab- 
lets of 30, 60, and 90 g; and fertilizer tablets of 9 g (22.0 pet N, 3.5 pet P, and 
1.7 pet K) and 21 g (20.0 pet N, 4.5 pet P, and 4.3 pet K) . For all species, the 
21-g fertilizer tablet produced significantly faster growth than did any of the other 
treatments. The 90-g sludge tablet and the 9-g fertilizer tablet produced similar 
growth responses for all species. The two nitrogen fixers, black locust and black 
alder, had average growth rates greater than either sweetgum or sawtooth oak, but not 
significantly greater. Fertility treatments did not affect the concentration of the 
foliar elements, particularly N, P, or K, in the tree species. However, high concen- 
trations of foliar manganese, copper, zinc, and iron were found in all species. The 
author concluded that because of their high growth rates black locust and black alder 
could be used as alternatives to pine in the Tennessee Copper Basin. 

66. Berry, C. R. Slit Application of Fertilizer Tablets and Sewage Sludge Improve 
Initial Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings in the Tennessee Copper Basin. Reclam. 
Rev., V. 2, No. 1, 1979, pp. 33-38. 

This study evaluated the potential use of dried sewage sludge and starter forest fer- 
tilizer tablets placed in slits to stimulate the growth of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda 
L.) seedlings in the copper basin of southeastern Tennessee. The treatments used 
were control (no treatment), 30 g of sludge, 60 g of sludge, 90 g of sludge, 9 g of 
Agriform forest starter tablets, and 21 g of Agriform forest starter tablets. The 
sludge or fertilizer tablets were placed in the closing hole created by planting the 
loblolly pine with a planting bar. After 3 years the seedlings on the control plots 
grew poorly, while the seedlings on the five treatment plots grew significantly bet- 
ter. The fertilizer tablets were the most convenient to use and stimulated seedling 
growth. By the end of the third year the 21-g and 9-g fertilizer tablets increased 
seedling volume by 20 and 9 fold respectively over the control treatment. The re- 
sults of this study indicate that slit application of nutrients is an alternative to 
broadcast application. Although broadcast application of fertilizer and sludge re- 
sults in more production, slit applications are less expensive, easier to apply on 
rugged terrains, and less stimulating to growth of competing vegetation, 

67. Berry, C. R. Survival and Growth of Pitch, Loblolly, and Pitch x Loblolly 
Pine Seedlings With Pisolithus Ectomycorrhizae After One Year on Coal Spoils in Ala- 
bama and Tennessee. Abstract of paper presented at the Meeting of the Am. Coun. for 
Reclam. Res. (Univ. AL, University AL, Sept. 19-22, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, 
pp. 61-64. 

This field study consisted of planting containerized seedlings of loblolly ( Pinus 
taeda L.) , pitch (Pinus rigida Mill.) and pitch x loblolly pine ( Pinus rigida x Pinus 
taeda ( Pinus xrigitaeda )) hybrids on coal spoils near Carjrville, TN, and Birmingham, 
AL. Half of each outplanted group had been inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius 
(Pt) ectomycorrhizae, the other half of each group were not inoculated (NI) but soon 
became infected with Thelephora terrestris ectomycorrhizae. Although the seedlings 
were not in the field plots only 2 years at the time of writing, survival in all 
cases was about 90 pet, with the Pt seedlings outperforming the NI seedlings. Root 
collar diameter was the best parameter to evaluate treatment within pine lines, and 
in some cases the crosses did better than the parent lines. 



68 

68. Berry, C. R. , and D. H. Marx. Growth of Loblolly Pine Seedlings in Strip- 
Mined Kaolin Spoil as Influenced by Sewage Sludge. J. Environ. Qual. , v. 6, No. 4, 
1977, pp. 379-381. 

This study was conducted to determine whether additions of sewage sludge would im- 
prove the growth of loblolly pine seedlings ( Pinus taeda L.) on kaolin spoil obtained 
from surface mined sites near Macon, GA. If growth improved, a second objective was 
to determine the minimum quantity of sewage sludge needed to significantly increase 
growth. Twenty-five microplots were constructed, and kaolin spoil was added. Anaer- 
obically digested dried sewage sludge was added to the kaolin spoil at the following 
equivalent rates: 0, 34, 69, 138, and 275 t/ha. Height, stem collar diameter, and 
fresh weight were significantly improved by sludge amendments. The mean values for 
each of the growth factors were highest in plots containing 69 t/ha sludge. However, 
these parameters were not significantly different from those in plots containing 34 
t/ha sludge. When 275 t/ha were appli-ed, all growth factors were significantly lower 
than with any other treatment. The survival of all planted seedlings decreased as 
sludge application rates increased. The degree of ectomycorrhizal development was 
proportional to the amount of seedling growth. The 34- and 69-t/ha sludge treatments 
resulted in short roots with the highest proportion of ectomycorrhizae development. 
The lowest amount of ectomycorrhizae development occurred in the 0- and 275-t/ha 
treatments. Sludge application also increased the concentration of organic matter 
and essential plant nutrients in the soil. The authors concluded that sewage sludge 
is an excellent organic amendment for kaolin spoil, with small amounts significantly 
stimulating growth and mycorrhizal development of loblolly pine seedlings. The lower 
rates of application are also economically attractive owing to transportation costs 
and the amount of kaolin spoil acreage that needs reclamation. 

69. Berry, C. H. , and D. H. Marx. Significance of Various Soil Amendments to Bor- 
row Pit Reclamation With Loblolly Pine and Fescue. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 2, 1980, 
pp. 87-94. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether borrow pits located in South Caro- 
lina could be reclaimed by deep subsoiling application of various inorganic and or- 
ganic amendments and by planting loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) seedlings colonized 
with a specific ectomycorrhizal fungus. The site was prepared by removing all trees, 
subsoiling, and ripping furrows 0.9 m deep. Following subsoiling the area was disked 
and seeded with Ky-31 fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) prior to tree planting. 
Two ectomycorrhizal treatments were utilized and combined with nine different fer- 
tility treatments: (1) control, (2) fertilizer and lime, (3) fertilizer and lime 
+ treebark, (4) fertilizer and lime + ash, (5) fertilizer and lime + bark + ash, 
(6) sewage sludge, (7) sewage sludge + bark, (8) sewage sludge + ash, and (9) sewage 
sludge + bark + ash. The sewage sludge treatments (6-9) improved pine seedling 
growth and fescue biomass when compared to the other soil treatments. Mean seedling 
volume was 28 times greater and fescue biomass five times greater on sludge plots 
than on nonsludge plots. There was also more soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic 
matter along with a higher cation exchange capacity on the sludge amended plots than 
on nonsludge plots. Foliar analysis of loblolly pine indicated that with sludge 
amendments the nitrogen and calcium concentrations were higher than on other treat- 
ment plots. The authors conclude that amelioration of a borrow pit considered un- 
suitable for plant growth can be accomplished by deep subsoiling and application of 
dried sewage sludge. 

70. Best, G. R. , P. M. Wallace, W. J. Dunn, and J. A. Feiertag. Enhancing Ecolog- 
ical Succession: 4. Growth, Density, and Species Richness of Forest Communities 
Established From Seed on Amended Overburden Soils. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 
2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 377-383. 



69 

This study assessed the germination, survival, growth, density, and species richness 
of 25 tree species, ranging from early to late successional species, directly seeded 
on amended phosphate mine overburden from north central Florida. The amendments used 
were (1) vesicular arbuscular fungi inoculum (VA mycorrhizae) , (2) ectomycorrhizal 
fungi inoculum (Pt mycorrhizae), (3) fertilizer (15-0-15 applied at a rate of 
320 kg/ha) , (4) soil surface organic matter (straw mulch applied at a rate of 4,500 
kg/ha), (5) soil amendment (phosphogypsum applied at a rate of 1,750 kg/ha) , and 
(6) topsoil. First year growth of the tree seedlings was significantly increased 
with the mulch, topsoil, and VA mycorrhizae, while Pt mycorrhizae, gypsum, and fer- 
tilizer significantly decreased growth. A Community Development Index (GDI) was de- 
veloped and was comprised of relative values for growth, density, and species rich- 
ness of tree seedlings. The GDI was used to assess the effectiveness of the soil 
amendments on community establishment. During the first year mulch, topsoil, and 
mycorrhizal inoculum had a positive effect on the GDI, Pt mycorrhizae inoculum had a 
positive effect on the GDI, Pt mycorrhizae had no effect, and gypsum and fertilizer 
had a negative effect. 

During the second growing season there were no treatment effects on the GDI. The 
authors feel this is due to the dominance of the pioneer successional species mimosa 
( Albizzia jvMbrissins Duraz.) and trumpet creeper ( Catalpa bignonioides Walt.) 

71. Bhowmik, N. G. Stream Bank Stabilization Techniques. Paper in 1983 Symposium 
on Surface irning, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 
27-Dec. 2, 1933). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 343-348. 

This paper presents various bank stabilization techniques that are widely used to 
halt the erosion of streambanks. Some of the techniques that are discussed include 
rip rap, various rock revetments, fencing, hardpoints , various dikes, sheet piling, 
concrete piling, timber, tree sausage, vegetation, and other materials such as used 
rubber tires . A combination of these techniques or any one of them alone can be used 
to prevent further erosion of a streambank, 

72. Bird, R. , and W. Misiolek. Report of Effects of Land Reclamation Policies on 
the Economic Feasibility of Lignite Surface Mine Development. Univ. AL Sch. of Mines 
and Energy Devel. , Res. Rep., 1979, 72 pp. 

This report examines potential economic impact of regulatory policy for mineland rec- 
lamation on the development of lignite mining in Alabama. It was estimated that top- 
soil reclamation to a depth of 4 ft could add as much as $l/t to the cost of mining 
the lignite, accounting for approximately 14 pet of the total cost of production. 
This economic analysis is specific to the potential development of lignite mining in 
southern Alabama. 

73. Bjugstad, A. J. Shrub and Tree Establishment on Goal Spoils in Northern High 
Plains — USA. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Goal Mining and Rec- 
lamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. 
and U.S. GSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, 
pp. 223-236. 

Trickle irrigation during establishment was shown to increase survival twofold for 
seven species of shrubs and trees planted on coal mine spoil in the semiarid area of 
northeastern Wyoming. The species used in this study included green ash ( Fraxinus 
pennsylvanica Marsh.), Russian olive ( Elaeagnus angustifolia L.), silver buffaloberry 
( Sheperdia argentea (Pursh.) Nutt.), Siberian peashrub ( Garagana arborescens Lam.) 
American plum ( Prunus americana Marsh.), ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa Laws.), and 
Rocky Mountain juniper ( Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.). The increased survival per- 
sisted for 5 years following the initiation of the study. This period included two 
growing and two winter seasons after cessation of irrigation. The results of this 



70 

study are pertinent to mineland reclamation activities in the Northern Great Plains 
and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

74. Blake, G. Exotics vs. Natives. Western Wildlands, v. 7, No. 3, 1981, pp. 26- 
27. 

The author discusses the use of exotic and native vegetation for reclaiming surface- 
mined land in eastern Montana. The use of exotic or introduced species may create 
new environmental problems since they are not adapted to the environmental conditions 
of eastern Montana. The regeneration of natural vegetation on surface-mined land 
involves three factors: (1) seed that is adapted to the local environment, (2) site 
preparation of the seedbed, and (3) climatic conditions. When all three are consid- 
ered correctly, natural regeneration occurs. 

75. Bogner, J. E., and A. 0. Perry. A Case Study of Surface Mining and Reclama- 
tion Planning: Cannelton Mine No. 9-S, Cannelton, West Virginia. V. 3F in Inte- 
grated Mine-Area Reclamation and Land Use Planning. Argonne Nat. Lab. ANL/EMR-1, v. 
3F, Feb. 1977, 54 pp. 

This report is one in a 10-volume series prepared by the Energy and Environmental 
Systems Division of Argonne National Laboratory and the Resource and Land Investiga- 
tions (RALI) Program of the U.S. Department of the Interior under the sponsorship of 
the U.S. Geological Survey. In this case study a mountaintop-removal coal mining 
operation in south-central West Virginia is examined. Steep-sided hills characterize 
the area surrounding the mining area. The area generally lacks extensive tracts 
of level land suitable for agricultural or residential-commercial development. The 
Cannelton operation already has several ridges and through innovative reclamation 
planning is creating areas that may have a higher land use potential than before min- 
ing. While the end use identified by a planning team, a new town site, may not have 
been realistic, it is a good example of integrated mine and reclamation planning. 
The study provides a very complete report of the mining operation and the reclamation 
techniques. Specific details of the report are probably unique to this part of the 
Eastern Coal Mining Region. However, many of the general principles and criteria are 
applicable to land use and reclamation planning nationwide. 

76. Boles, P. H. Reclamation of Surface Mined Lands in Wyoming for Livestock 
Grazing and Wildlife Habitat. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal 
Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT 
State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). Mt State Univ. and U.S. 
OSM, 1984, pp. 342-371. 

The author presents information on revegetation results and on species of plants that 
have been successful on reclaimed lands, as well as those that have failed. The 
article contains discussions on a number of topics including restoring wildlife habi- 
tat; methods of evaluating reclamation; the use of adapted species, varieties, and 
subspecies; the role of hybridization in developing plants for reclamation; the use 
of shrub tubelings; the advantages of different seeding techniques; and the role of 
mycorrhizal fungi in revegetation of minelands. The discussions are extensively ref- 
erenced to available literature. This paper is a very good reference for planning 
reclamation activities in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions. 

77. Boles, P. H. Shrub Cover and Density on Western Rangelands in Relation to 
Reclamation Standards for Surface Mined Lands in Wyoming. Paper in 1983 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27- 
Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 467-476. 

A literature review dealing with shrub cover and density on western rangeland 
and wildlife habitat studies, along with an analysis of vegetation baseline data 



71 

collected on Wyoming coal mines, was done to establish reasonable and ecologically 
sound reclamation goals for shrub density. Four elements (historical record, vegeta- 
tion baseline data, wildlife habitat studies, and regulations) were brought together 
to formulate a sound reclamation standard for shrub density and cover on reclaimed 
lands in Wyoming. Based on the review of the literature, a general shrub density 
goal of 1 shrub per 9 m^ is recommended on land used for both livestock grazing and 
wildlife browsing. If a portion of the reclaimed land is for the creation of wild- 
life habitat only, a shrub density of 1/m^ is recommended. 

78. Bonham, C. D. , L. L. Larson, and A. Morrison. A Survey of Techniques for 
Measurement of Herbaceous and Shrub Production, Cover and Diversity on Coal Lands in 
the West. U.S. OSM, Reg. V Draft Rep., Uniscale Corp., Loveland, TX, Jan. 31, 1980, 
79 pp. 

The article provides information on premining and postmining vegetation inventory 
techniques. Applicable techniques to measure vegetative cover, productivity, and 
species diversity are surveyed for herbaceous and shrub vegetation. Also given for 
each technique are possible sampling options and procedural problems. Reference 
areas are also discussed in relation to their purpose, an area representing inventory 
units present before mining and used to evaluate postmining revegetation success. 

79. Booth, D. T. Emergence of Bitterbrush Seedlings on Land Disturbance by Phos- 
phate Mining. J. Range Manage., v. 33, No. 6, Nov. 1980, pp. 439-441. 

This article reports the results of a study designed to evaluate the effects 
of planting depth, number of seeds per seed spot, and the application of fungicide 
and/or vermiculite on the emergence of full-seeded bitterbrush in medium-fine- 
textured phosphate mine spoil in southeastern Idaho. A planting depth of 1.3 to 
2.5 cm resulted in optimum emergence. Less emergence was obtained on plot of 20 
seeds per seed spot than from plots with 1, 5, or 10 seeds per seed spot. Mixing the 
seed with a volume of vermiculite 10 to 40 times the volume of the seed and dusting 
the seed with Captan fungicide improve emergence. While the information contained in 
this article relates specifically to revegetation of land disturbed by phosphate min- 
ing, it may also be found applicable to establishing bitterbrush on surface-coal- 
mined land as well. 

80. Booth, D. T. Innovation in Wildland Shrub Establishment. Paper in the Third 
Biennial Sjrmposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (co- 
chaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19- 
21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 251-257. 

This paper reviews some fluid seed drilling equipment and reports two studies ad- 
dressing the problems of shrub fluid drilling. The author feels that fluid drilling 
provides a means for increasing control and manipulation of the seed and its environ- 
ment, while retaining the capability for extensive low-cost dispersal. Study 1 dem- 
onstrated the potential for establishing shrubs that require cold-moist treatment to 
break dormancy through the use of fluid drilling methods. This study also provided 
evidence of water-soluble substances that inhibit the dormancy breaking process in 
some species. Study 2 indicated that land imprinting significantly improved seedling 
establishment of fluid-drilled surface-germinating seeds, such as those of Eurotia 
spp. The results and methods presented in this paper could find application through- 
out the arid and semiarid area of the Northern Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and 
Pacific Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

81. Borovsky, J. P., D. F. Grigal, and R. L. Strassman. Reclamation of Tailing 
Basins Resulting From Copper-Nickel Milling (contract J0205050, Barr Engineering 
Co.). BuMines OFR 214-83, Aug. 1983, 147 pp.; NTIS PB 84-142 587. 

This publication reports the results of a 3-year study that evaluated the potential 
for using vegetation to stabilize tailings from a potential Minnesota copper-nickel 



72 

milling operation. The investigation consisted of (1) a waste characterization 
study, (2) a greenhouse study, and (3) a field study. Most physical and chemical 
characteristics of the tailings were within the range of properties exhibited by Min- 
nesota soils. However, the tailings were found to lack organic matter, be deficient 
in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and contain elevated levels of soluble salts 
and heavy metals. Numerous grass, forbs, and woody plants tolerant of the tailings 
material as a rooting medium are reported. Incorporation of peat or a topsoil dress- 
ing was found not to be necessary for adequate revegetation of the copper-nickel 
tailings since they provided few benefits to the revegetation process that were not 
provided by a fertilizer application. Grass legume production with a fertilizer 
treatment was comparable to local agricultural yields. Heavy metals concentrated in 
grasses grown on the tailing remained within acceptable tolerance limits. Legumes 
concentrated more copper and nickel. The results and discussion contained in this 
report may, in part, be applicable to revegetation of surface-coal-mined land, par- 
ticularly in the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions. 

82. Boyle, P. L. , J. L. Powell, R. I. Barnhisel, and J. H. Grove. Sulphur Coated 
Phosphorus as a Source of P for Topsoiled Mine Land in Western Kentucky. Paper in 
1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 123-128. 

This paper reports the results of a study comparing the effectiveness of sulfur- 
coated ammonium polyphosphate, 7-34-0-305 (SCP), to that of triple superphosphate 
fertilizer, 0-46-0 (TSP) , and triple superphosphate plus elemental S (PS), as mea- 
sured by yields of alfalfa ( Medicage sativa L.). Plant response to the more conven- 
tional TSP fertilizer was greater than response to the slow-release SCP fertilizer. 
Both types of fertilizers raised the Bray-P soil phosphorus to the same level. The 
observed response differences were attributed to poorer seedling establishment on the 
SCP-treated plots due to slow P release and low residual soil P. The authors sug- 
gest either applying the SCP fertilizer type sufficiently in advance of seeding or 
including a small application of a much more soluble P fertilizer to improve plant 
establishment . 

83. Brady, T. M. , W. W. Kaufman, and D. N. Reynolds. Topsoil Rock Removal. Paper 
in Surface Coal Mining Reclamation Equipment and Techniques. Proceedings: Bureau of 
Mines Technology Transfer Seminars, Evansville, IN, June 3, 1980, and Denver, CO, 
June 5, 1980. BuMines IC 8823, 1980, pp. 30-47. 

This article outlines the extent of the rock problem in reclamation throughout the 
United States, discusses in detail the legal requirements that affect the reclamation 
process, analyzes the state of the art of current rock pickers including their physi- 
cal limitations, presents an analysis of rock pickers applied to mine reclamation, 
surveys environmental effects that may take place, and details the benefits that can 
result from introducing rock pickers into the mining industry. This article will be 
applicable to planning reclamation activities where removal of rocks from topsoil is 
necessary. 

84. Branson, B. A. Strip Mining and the Environment. Natl. Parks Conserv. Mag., 
v. 51, No. 4, 1977, pp. 10-12. 

This general article discusses the need for Federal and state regulation of surface 
mining. This article was written prior to the passage of Public Law 95-87. The ar- 
ticle also contains a discussion of the economic considerations and technical prob- 
lems that are associated with surface mining. The main theme of the article is that 
the coal industry must be more stringently regulated in order to preserve land and 
water resources. 

85. Brenner, F. J. Food and Cover Evaluation of Strip Mine Plants as Related to 
Wildlife Management. Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in 



73 

the Eastern United States (West Virginia Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Ser. FWS/OBS-78/81, 1978, pp. 294-305. 

Surveys were conducted on the vegetative associations on 82 reclaimed sites in Mer- 
cer County, PA. The various species that were utilized during the reclamation pro- 
cess were evaluated on the basis of their success in providing sediment erosion con- 
trol and food and cover for wildlife. On 12 of these areas, differing in age and 
reclamation types, specific studies were conducted involving mammalian populations, 
nutrient analysis, and digestibility of herbaceous species. Mammalian populations 
correlated with the amount, density, and type of vegetation on each site. 

86. Brenner, F. J., R. B. Kelly, and J. Kelly. Mammalian Community Characteris- 
tics on Surface Mine Lands in Pennsylvania. Environ. Manage., v. 6, No. 3, 1982, 
pp. 241-249. 

This study was done to determine the types of and changes in small mammal populations 
using mines of varying ages, the relationship between small mammal communities, and 
the amount, structure, and type of plant community on surface-mined lands in Mercer 
County, PA. Small mammal populations and biomass were determined on 10 different 
surface mines of varying ages and types of restoration. Studies were also conducted 
on an unmined (reference area) deciduous forest and grassland that had been aban- 
doned for 20 years. The mammalian populations showed considerable variation among 
the different mines. Woodland deer-mice (Peromyscus Leucopus) and short-tailed 
shrews (Blarina brevicauda ) were the most numerous species and occurred in most of 
the habitats studied. It was found that the plant species that were used during the 
initial reclamation were not as important as the volunteer species in establishing 
favorable habitats for the invasion of small mammals. The authors conclude that sur- 
face mines will support a variety of mammalian species and that the composition of 
the community is dependent upon the amount and type of vegetation. It was found that 
the volunteer plant species had a higher correlation with the type and size of mam- 
malian communities than did the exotic species normally used in reclamation. 

87. Briggs, R. W. , and R. C. Greas. Sludge to Fertile Soil — Research Results. J. 
Test. Eval., JTEVA, v. 8, No. 5, 1980, pp. 265-269. 

This article describes research conducted by the Dravo Lime Co., Pittsburgh, PA on 
the development of fertile soil from combining flue gas desulfurization sludges with 
municipal waste sludges. A second objective was to stabilize and combine coal fine 
refuse with municipal waste in order to identify potential stabilization and revege- 
tation techniques. Testing of the various mixtures involved both greenhouse and 
field trials using a variety of agronomic species. Both the physical and chemical 
properties of the synthetic soils (sludge combinations) have been monitored and com- 
pared to desired soil parameters. The results of this study demonstrate that both 
flue gas desulfurization sludges and coal fine refuse can be combined with municipal 
waste sludge to produce a fertile soil. 

88. Brisbin, I. L. , Jr. The Principles of Ecology as a Framework for a Total Eco- 
system Approach to High Altitude Revegetation Research. Paper in Proceedings: High- 
Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 
1982). CO Water Resour. Res. Inst., CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. No. 
48, Dec. 1982, pp. 1-11. 

This paper contains a concise, but general overview of the basic principles of modern 
ecology as they relate to planning projects and subsequent revegetation programs in 
high altitude areas. It provides a good synopsis of these principles and would be of 
value to individuals with little or no background in the biological sciences. Al- 
though the major emphasis is on high-altitude ecosystems, the principles presented 
are applicable to most surface mining situations as well. This article has been 



74 

rated somewhat differently in this evaluation process since it presents basic con- 
cepts rather than the results of a research project. 

89. Brissette, J. C. Pine Seedling Availability for Reforestation on Non-indus- 
trial Private Forest Lands in the South. So. J. Appl. For., v. 6, No. 1, 1982, 
pp. 41-44. 

The author discusses the need to increase pine seedling production at southern state 
nurseries for the reforestation of nonindustrial private forest lands. This need 
could include pine seedlings for the reforestation of surface-mined lands in the 
south. Production was expected to increase from 602 million seedlings in 1980-81 to 
702 million seedlings for the 1982-83 planting season. This projection exceeds the 
southern state nurseries' estimated maximum potential of 694 million. It was felt 
that any increase above this level will be at the cost of crop rotation and good soil 
management and will result in a lower quality seedling. However, there are methods 
available to supplement bare-root nursery seedling production, such as containerized 
seedlings which offer the potential for rapid production and an extended planting 
season. Another important method that could be used to meet future demands for 
pine seedlings is the use of genetically improved stock. It has been shown that this 
stock can produce up to 20 pet more wood than unimproved stock. Even with these 
methods of increasing and improving pine seedling production, predictions still indi- 
cate that demands for timber will exceed available resources. 

90. Brown, D. R. , and D. L. Branson. An Evaluation of Reclamation Tree Planting 
in Southwest Virginia. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 
1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 37-38. 

The author discusses the historic use of tree plantings as a reclamation technique in 
southwest Virginia. Documentation is given from 1966 through June 1980 on the oper- 
ating permits issued, acres disturbed, acres reclaimed, and number of tree seedlings 
used. A high of 4 million seedlings were planted in 1975. However, from 1975 to 
1980 a decrease in the number of seedlings planted occurred. This decrease corre- 
sponds to a decrease in acreage disturbed due to reduced mining activity because of a 
depressed coal market and/or increased regulation. However, there have been over 3.5 
million seedlings planted on abandoned mine lands since 1975. 

91. Brown, J. E., R. E. Farmer, Jr., and W. E. Splittstoesser. The Establishment 
of Mixed Plant Communities on Surface Mined Land for Timber Production, Timber and 
Wildlife, Wildlife Only, and a Native Mixed Forest. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 
2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 431-435. 

This study evaluated the direct seeding of tree, shrub, forage, and forb species 
planted in different combinations on surface-mined lands in Campbell and Morgan Coun- 
ties, TN. Experimental treatments consisted of species mixtures designed for differ- 
ent management objectives: (1) timber production (two combinations), (2) wildlife 
food and cover (two combinations), (3) timber production and wildlife food and cover, 
(4) mixed forest with wildlife cover, and (5) a control of Kobe lespedeza ( Lespedeza 
striata Var. Kobe) and various volunteer species. Of the species planted, the fol- 
lowing survived and grew well: (1) trees — Virginia pine ( Pinus virginlana Mill.) and 
black locust ( Roblnia pseudoacacia L.); (2) shrubs, — Indigobush ( Amorpha fruticosa 
L.), autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), Bicolor lespedeza ( Lespedeza bicolor 
Turcz.), and bush grape (Vitis rupestris Scheele.); and (3) forbs — aster ( Aster 
pilosus Willd.), Bur-marigold (Bidens f rondosa L.), lambs quarters ( Chenopodium album 
L.), fireweed ( Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf.), small wood sunflower ( Helianthus 
microcephalus Torr. & Gray.), and pokeweed ( Phytolacca americana L.). Depending on 
the plant community designation, sourwood ( Oxydendrum arboreum L.), Joe-Pye-weed 
(Eupatorium serotinum Michx.), and goldenrod (Solidago altissima L.) had varying 



75 

survival rates. All sown forage plants became established and grew well with vegeta- 
tive ground cover ranging from 21 to 63 pet after the first growing season. Except 
for the community designed as a native mixed forest, all treatment areas had at least 
70 pet ground cover by the end of the second growing season. 

92. Brown, J. E., and J. B. Maddox. Mixed Woodchips and Paper as a Mulch for 
Strip-Mined Land Revegetation. Div. Land and For. Res., Tennessee Valley Authority, 
Norris, TN, Tech. Note B42, Nov. 1980, 9 pp. 

The study reported in this publication tested the effectiveness of combined hammer- 
milled woodchips and paper mulch in aiding vegetation establishment. The woodchip- 
paper mulch mix was also compared to a standard mulch (Turf iber) . The study was con- 
ducted at a surface minesite in Campbell County in east Tennessee. Three rates of 
application were tested: 1,120, 1,680, and 2,241 kg/ha. These rates were compared 
with the standard recommended rate of Turfiber (91,680 kg/ha) . First-season vege- 
tative cover produced with the lowest rate of the woodchip-paper mulch mix was com- 
parable to that obtained with the standard rate of Turfiber at a significant cost 
savings. Aspects of this study are specific to the Eastern Coal Mining Region. How- 
ever, the results may find application in the other domestic coal mining regions rec- 
ognized in this evaluation process. 

93. Brown, J. E., J. B. Maddox, and G. N. Bartley, Jr. Acrylic Emulsion as a 
Straw Binder in Reclaiming Coal Surface-Mined Land. Tennessee Valley Authority, Nor- 
ris, TN, Tech. Note B 43, TVA/ONR/LFR-81/2, Jan. 1981, 15 pp. 

The effectiveness of acrylic emulsion (AE) as a straw binder was tested and treatment 
cost comparisons were made between AE and emulsified asphalt. The study was con- 
ducted at a strip mine site in Campbell County, TN. Treatments consisted of (1) 0.56 
kl/ha AE plus 2.2 t/ha straw, and (2) 1.68 kl/ha asphalt plus 4.5 t/ha straw. No 
significant difference was found in vegetative cover between the two treatments. 
Half the recommended rate of straw used in conjunction with AE was as effective as 
the recommended rates of asphalt and straw. Application costs were slightly higher 
for the AE treatments. The results and discussion contained in this report are di- 
rectly applicable to reclamation planning in the Eastern Coal Mining Region and may 
be applicable in other parts of the United States as well. 

94. Brown, J. E., J. B. Maddox, and W. E. Splittstoesser. The Effect of Fertil- 
izer and Strip Mine Spoil on Germination and Growth of Legumes. Paper in 1983 Sjrmpo- 
sium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, 
Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 419-422. 

This greenhouse study simulated seeding conditions with a hydroseeder using fertil- 
izer slurries and mine spoil. Seeds of alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.), hairy vetch 
( Vicia villosa Roth.), Kobe lespedeza ( Lespedeza striata var. Kobe), Korean lespedeza 
( Lespedeza stipulacea Maxim.), red clover (Trif olium pratense L.) , sericea lespedeza 
( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don.), yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis 
(L.) Lam.), and white clover ( Trifolium repens L. ) were soaked for 20 min in 0, 57 
+ 54, or 114 + 118 kg/ha N (ammonium nitrate) and P (triple superphosphate), respec- 
tively, in 8 kl/ha water. Seeds and fertilizer were then sown in three different 
soils: (1) a loamy sand from an area along the Clinch River near Norris, TN (river 
bottom soil), pH 6.1, and used as a control (unmined); (2) a silt-clay loam shaley 
material, pH 6.4, mine soil 1; and (3) a mixture of shale and sandstone, pH 4.1, mine 
soil 2. The mine soils were obtained from two separate mines located in Campbell 
County, TN. Fertilizer did not affect germination on river bottom soil or, at low 
rates, on mine soils. However, at higher fertilization rates germination was gener- 
ally lower on the mine soils. The higher concentration of ammonium nitrate in the 
fertilizer along with the high levels of toxic ions (Mn, S, Fe, and Al) in the mine 
soils apparently reduced the germination of legume seeds. The shoot-root ratios of 



76 

planted legumes were also affected by the type of soil material they were grown in. 
Shoot-root ratios were generally higher on river bottom soil and mine soil 1, which 
supported the best plant growth. Mine soil 2 generally had low shoot-root ratios, 
reflecting poor overall legume growth when compared to the other two spoil materials. 

95. Brown, J. E. , J. B. Maddox, and W. E. Splittstoesser. The Use of Trees, 
Shrubs, and Forbs for Reclamation of Mine Spoils. Paper in Third Symposium Confer- 
ence on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., 
South. XL Univ. and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Pur- 
due Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 129-134. 

The authors report a study conducted on mine spoils in outdoor microplots. Tests 
were conducted on gray shale (pH 5.5) and brownish sandstone (pH 4.0) from Campbell 
County, TN, in addition to a silt-loam soil (pH 6.5) from Norris, TN. The objective 
of the study was to determine which species of trees, shrubs, and forbs could be es- 
tablished via direct seeding procedures. An extensive list of species was tested in- 
cluding 12 trees, 14 shrubs and 14 forbs. Stratification or acid treatment was ap- 
plied to some species prior to planting. The seeds and fertilizer were applied to 
the plots in a slurry to simulate a hydroseeder operation. Most species had a sur- 
vival rate greater than 50 pet. Species that performed well with respect to plant 
height, root penetration, dry weight, and plant survival included black locust ( Robi- 
nia pseudoacacia L.), European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), Virginia 
pine ( Pinus Virginiana Mill.), wild goose plum ( Prunus hortulana Bailey) , autumn 
olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), bristly locust (Robinia fertilis Ashe . ) , bush 
grape ( Vitis rupestris Scheele.), indigobush ( Amorpha fruticosa L.), staghorn sumac 
( Rhus typhina L.), fireweed (( Erechtites hieracifolia Raf.), flatpea ( Lathyrus syl- 
vestris L.), partridge pea ( Cassia fasciculata Michx.), Pennsylvania smartweed (Poly- 
gonum pensyevanicum L.), pokeweed ( Phyolacca americana L.), tick trefoil ( Desmodium 
spp.),and sheep sorrel ( Rumex acetosella L.). This paper provides a good reference 
of potential species for direct-seeding operations in reclaiming mineland. It pro- 
vides useful information for planning reclamation activities. No specific coal re- 
gion is identified by the authors other than the source of the soil material used in 
the study. The information offered would probably be applicable to a large por- 
tion of the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation 
process. 

96. Brown, K. W, , J. C. Thomas, and K. W. Lawnius. Distribution of Bermudagrass 
Roots in Native Soils and Reclaimed Lignite Spoil. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 2, 
1983, pp. 139-153. 

This study compared the soil pH, electrical conductivity, texture, bulk density, and 
root growth of bermudagrass ( Cynodon dactoylon (L.) Pers.) on surface-mined areas to 
native soils of unmined areas in eastern Texas. The surface-mined areas had been 
revegetated 2 years earlier. The results indicated that in all of the overburdens 
sampled, root biomass and distribution in the 120-cm profile were as great as, and in 
some cases greater than, those of native soils. The root mass was concentrated in 
the upper 0.25 m in both soil types. The spoil materials were generally more acidic 
than the native soils, but that caused no significant effect on root biomass or 
distribution. The bulk densities of the native soils were lower than those of the 
reclaimed spoil material. However, at greater depths in the soil profile, bulk den- 
sities were similar in both spoil and native soil. The spoil material also had more 
contained salt than the native soils, but the salt content was not high enough to 
have a detrimental effect on plant growth. The authors conclude that the salt con- 
tent and bulk density of the spoil material did not have an apparent adverse effect 
on bermudagrass root growth. However, they feel that a continued decrease in spoil 
pH may have a future impact on root growth. 



77 

97. Brown, L. F. Reclamation and Topsoil Use. Min. Congr. J., June 1982, 
pp. 48-52. 

The author defines land reclamation and discusses the cost effectiveness of topsoil- 
ing reclaimed molybdenum mines in Colorado. Six examples are given representing a 
spectrum of reclamation situations, including costs, ranging from no topsoil to long- 
term stockpiling of topsoil prior to use. Cost estimates are given as realistic 
approximations . 

98. Brown, M. B. Survival of Rhizobium Innoculum in Hydroseeding Slurries. Pa- 
per in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, 681 pp. 

The viability of Rhizobium was studied in fertilizer slurries with differing pH val- 
ues. Since phosphate was the only fertilizer component to influence the pH of a 
hydroseeding solution, different concentrations of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and 
triple superphosphate (TSP) were used to prepare hydromixtures with pH values ranging 
from 2.9 to 7.7. With slurry pH levels of less than 6.0, innoculum viability was 
significantly reduced. However, with enough DAP present in the slurry to increase pH 
levels above 6.0, normal nodulation of sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.- 
cours.)G. Don) occurred. The ratio of DAP to TSP should be maintained at 4 to 6 for 
nodulation to occur. Hydrated lime can also be used. 

99. Brown, R. W. , and R. S. Johnston. Reclaimining Disturbed Alpine Lands. 
Western Wildlands, v. 7, No. 3, 1981, pp. 38-42. 

This article contains general information on revegetation treatments that should 
be used when reclaiming alpine mining disturbances. Examples of treatments used 
successfully on the Beartooth Plateau in southeastern Montana are given. General 
revegetation principles such as shaping and contouring, species selection, timing of 
seeding, soil treatments (amendments), seeding and planting methods, and post-revege- 
tation management are all applicable to disturbed alpine lands. By using these re- 
vegetation principles, site stability can be achieved much faster than if natural 
succession was allowed to proceed alone. The main challenge to reclaiming alpine 
sites is to link climatic variations, physiological adaptations of plants, and limit- 
ing factors of the disturbed site. 

100. Brumbaugh, F. R. Get the Big Picture - To Comply With Reclamation Laws. 
Coal Min. and Process., Feb. 1979, pp. 57-60, 76-77. 

The author describes the concept of remote-sensing aerial photography to measure 
ground cover in compliance with PL 95-87. Data from color infared photography were 
used as an example of how revegetation can be measured and verified, and a rationale 
was established on how this technique complies with the performance standards. 

101. Buckner, D. L. Combining Measures of Spatial and Temporal Variation: A His- 
torical Record Approach to Obtaining Baseline Data. Paper in Symposium on Western 
Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. 
Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dept., Fort Collins, CO, 
Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 84-86. 

Because of ecological realities and mapping practicality, a substantial amount of 
spatial and temporal variability exists in the vegetation units recognized and subse- 
quently subjected to quantitative sampling in establishing a baseline standard for 
revegetation success. A method consisting of random samples stratified by year over 
the period of baseline data collection is suggested that combines measures of spatial 
and temporal variation into revegetation standards. The method avoids using static 
measures derived from a relatively small part of a very large vegetational mosaic to 
predict average year-to-year values of cover and production. This article provides 



78 

an excellent reference for designing reclamation monitoring programs. It was written 
with special reference to the Western United States. However, the methods described 
are applicable nationwide. 

102. Bunin, J. E. Transplanting Offers Reclamation Solutions. Coal Min. Pro- 
cess., July 1983, pp. 24-28. 

This article offers an excellent overview of the roles of containerized and bare-root 
nursery stock and transplanting natural vegetation in reclaiming mined lands. The 
article particularly refers to revegetation of mined lands in the Western United 
States. However, the techniques and rationales for decision making would apply 
nationwide, 

103. Burger, J. A., S. H. Schoenholtz, R. E. Preve, and J. L. Torbert. Research 
Progress on the Use of Forest Regeneration Techniques for Surface-Mine Reclamation in 
Southwestern Virginia. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With 
Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madisonville 
Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, pp. 171-179. 

Four separate but related southwestern Virginia studies are reported in this paper. 
The objective of the first study was to identify tree species capable of competing 
with herbaceous vegetation. Fifteen tree species were planted on a recontoured strip 
mine in Wise County, VA. Greater than 60 pet of the black locust ( Robinia pseudoaca- 
cia L.), oak ( Quercus spp.), sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis L.), and white ash 
( Fraxinus americana L.) survived. The more shade-tolerant white pine (Plnus strobus 
L.) fared the best of the pines tested, with a 62-pct survival rate. A second study 
was conducted to evaluate the effects of ectomycorrhizal inoculation with Pisolithus 
tinctorius (Pt), chemical weed control, and slow-release fertilization on first-year 
survival and growth of white pine, Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.), and lob- 
lolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) on two surface-mined sites. The fertilizer used was 
Agriform tablets. Glyphosate was used for weed control. First-year survival was 
excellent for all three pine species with loblolly pine showing the best growth. Pt 
colonization increased seedling growth for all three species. Again, loblolly pine 
exhibited the most substantial increase in seedling volume when inoculated. Fertil- 
ization enhanced seedling growth of all three pine seedlings. Chemical weed control 
did not significantly increase seedling growth except when it was used in combination 
with fertilization. The three cultural treatments were compatible in providing 
increased first-year growth for all three pine species. A third study examined the 
effects of hydroseeding pine-grass-legume mixtures for erosion control and reforesta- 
tion of mine soils. Nurse crops consisting of perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne 
L.) and red fescue ( Festuca rubra L.), as well as birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus cornicu- 
latus L.), crownvetch ( Coronllla varia L.), or white clover ( Trifolium repens L.), 
were applied in combination with a mixture of white, Virginia, and loblolly pine 
seeds. Fertilizer treatments were also applied. Ground cover was increased for all 
nurse crops by nitrogen application. This had an adverse effect on pine establish- 
ment. Nitrogen increased the number of pine seedlings where no nurse crops were 
included. Early data suggest that at least four times as much spoil erosion may be 
expected where nurse crops are not used in reforestation of strip mines. A fourth 
study compared regeneration success on siltstone and sandstone overburden types. 
This study was conducted in a greenhouse combining surface-seeded white, Virginia and 
loblolly pine seeds, sandstone or siltstone spoil, mycorrhizal application, and fer- 
tilizer treatment. Spoil type strongly influenced mycorrhizal colonization with 
seedlings grown on sandstone spoil exhibiting a higher degree of colonization. A 
spoil-type X fertilizer Interaction was significant for loblolly pine biomass. The 
results of these studies are directly applicable to planning activities in this spe- 
cific area, and perhaps over a broader geographical area within the Eastern and Inte- 
rior Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 



79 

104. Bussler, B. H. , W. R. Byrnes, P. E. Pope, and W. R. Chaney. Properties of 
Minesoll Reclaimed for Forest Land Use. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 48, No. 1, 1984, 
pp. 178-184. 

This study evaluated the physical and chemical properties of reclaimed mineland and 
unmined reference soil (reference area) in Sullivan County, IN. A second ojective 
was to determine the suitability of minesoils for reforestation with hardwood tree 
species established concurrently with ground cover. The topography, soils (Typic 
Fragiudalf and Typic Hapludalf ) , vegetation (mixed upland hardwood tree and shrub) , 
and geologic formation were similar on both sites prior to mining. The results indi- 
cate that the chemical properties of the minesoil were similar to or more favorable 
for plant growth than those of the unmined reference soils. Plant nutrient avail- 
ability for the establishment and growth of cover crop and tree species should not be 
limiting, especially after liming and fertilizing. However, the physical properties 
of the minesoil were less favorable than those of the reference soils. Minesoils had 
higher bulk densities, lower porosity, lower permeability, more coarse fragments, 
higher clay content, and lower available water-holding capacity than the reference 
soils at comparable depths. These physical properties could limit plant growth and 
survival on reclaimed minesoils. 

105. Butterfield, R. I., and P. T. Tueller. Revegetation Potential of Acid Mine 
Wastes in Northeastern California. Reclam. Reveg. , v. 3, No. 1, 1980, pp. 21-31. 

This research was conducted to evaluate the potential for establishing vegetation on 
the Leviathan Mine sulphur spoils in Alpine County, CA. Four approaches were used to 
determine revegetation success on these 14-year-old spoils: a volunteer vegetation 
study, field trials, greenhouse trials, and soil analysis. The main factors limiting 
plant growth on sulfur soil materials are acidity and low nitrogen availability. 
Volunteer plant distribution on the spoils was apparently controlled by seedbed char- 
acteristics, soil pH, geologic origin of the spoil material, and seed dispersal meth- 
ods. No spoil modifications were apparently needed for the survival of planted bare- 
root tree and shrub species. No consistent relationships were found between liming 
and geologic origin and the survival rates of planted trees and shrubs. Liming and 
straw mulch treatments increased both the emergence and survival of seeded grasses 
and legumes. Fertilization decreased emergence and survival of herbaceous species 
and is probably not necessary or beneficial on these spoils. The most important fac- 
tor influencing vegetation establishment on these spoils is the low pH of the soil 
material. 

106. Byerly, D. W. , J. B. Maddox, C. S. Fletcher, and D. T. Eagle. Reclamation of 
Mined Land in the Piney Creek Watershed — An Interim Report. Paper in Symposium on 
Surface Mining and Fish/ Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States (WV Univ. , Dec. 
1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. , FWS/OBS-78/81 , 1978, pp. 267-275. 

This report presents general information on how reclamation of mined land will im- 
prove vegetation and the stream water quality of a 8,900-ha watershed in Van Buren 
County, TN. Baseline studies on the water quality and aquatic life of Piney Creek 
indicated that 174 ha of surface-mined land and two underground mines contributed to 
the adverse effects on stream water quality. Reclamation treatments to improve cover 
and water quality included planting trees and shrubs , seeding grasses and legumes , 
fertilizing, liming, construction of silt-seeding grasses and legumes, fertilizing, 
liming, construction of silt-retaining structures, and sealing the two underground 
mines. 

107. Byrnes, W. R. , W. R. Chaney, and P. E. Pope. Concurrent Establishment of 
Ground Cover and Hardwood Trees on Reclaimed Mineland and Unmined Reference Sites. 
Final Report, BuMines OFR 10-84, 1983, 13 pp. 



80 

This research was done to assess reforestation success and productivity for reclaimed 
mine land and reference sites in Sullivan County, IN. The specific objectives of the 
study were to (1) compare the establishment success and productivity of ground cover 
and commercial hardwood trees planted concurrently and maintained under the same lev- 
el of management on reclaimed and unmined reference sites, (2) evaluate the survival 
and growth of bare-root, containerized, and mycorrhizae inoculated hardwood seedlings 
on both sites, and (3) evaluate chemical plant control (herbicides) as a technique 
for concurrent establishment of tree species and ground cover vegetation. The woody 
and herbaceous species used in this study were black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.), 
northern red oak ( Quercus rubra L.), tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb) , and 
red clover ( Trifolium pratense L.). The results indicated that ground cover vegeta- 
tion was readily established on the minesite and exceeded the required 70 percent of 
the cover present on unmined reference areas. The ground productivity was similar on 
the mine site and reference area. With herbicide application the survival of both 
black walnut and red oak was adequate to meet the stocking requirements of PL 95-87. 
However, without chemical control, stocking results were one-half of the required 
level. Containerized black walnut and red oak seedlings showed higher survival and 
height growth than bare-root seedlings on the mine site; no significant differences 
were found on the reference site. Finally, mycorrhizal inoculation did not increase 
seedling survival or growth response. 

108. Call, C. A., and C. M. McKell. Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae — A Natural 
Revegetation Strategy for Disposed Processed Oil Shale. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, 
No. 4, 1982, pp. 337-347. 

This study compared the incidence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) associa- 
tions in disturbed and undisturbed (reference area) salt desert shrub communities 
located in Utah and Anvil Points, CO. The authors also determined the effects of 
soil disturbances and surface disposal of processed oil shale on the infection poten- 
tial of VAM fungi in Paraho, CO shale. The majority of plant species examined in 
the Utah shrub community possessed VAM. In the undisturbed shadscale and sagebrush- 
greasewood communities, all 17 species were mycorrhizal, while in the disturbed 
sagebrush-greasewood community 4 of the 5 species present were nonmycorrhizal. Dis- 
turbances at the Utah and Anvil Points sites reduced VAM potential of the soils. The 
mean infection percentages of bioassay plants grown in disturbed soils were about 
one-half those of bioassay plants grown in undisturbed soils. The bioassay plants 
grown on the Paraho processed shale showed no signs of VAM infection. The infection 
percentages were 0, 19 to 26, and 40 to 45 for the processed oil shale, disturbed 
native soil, and undisturbed native soil, respectively. The authors discuss VAM in 
terms of their roles in disturbed and undisturbed communities and their potential use 
in the revegetation of disposed processed oil shale. 

109. Camenzind, F. J. Wildlife and Coal Development: An Overview. Paper in the 
Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains 
(cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 
19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 111-124. 

The changes that have occurred in the past 300 years in the public's attitudes toward 
our Nation's natural resources are briefly reviewed, with particular reference to the 
wildlife resource. These changes in attitude are discussed in light of current sur- 
face coal mine reclamation regulations. The need to manage each reclamation site on 
an ecosystem basis is emphasized. Management considerations are briefly discussed 
for three unique reclamation habitat types: riparian, agriculture, and forest. The 
concepts discussed are applicable nationwide. 

110. Campbell, W. F., J. F. Walsh, J. J. Skujins, T. M. Schreeg, and D. lanson. 
Utilization of Legumes in the Revegetation of Environmentally Stressed Arid Mine 
Spoils. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Symposium, Coal Conference and 



81 

Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 23-25, 1979). McGraw-Hill, 1979, 
pp. 227-239. 

This article reports the results of laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments 
conducted with legumes and their appropriate Rhizobia spp. to examine their potential 
in revegetation of arid western surface-mined soils. Soil pH, moisture content, 
salinity, available P and Ca were found to affect germination, emergence, survival, 
and N-fixation, The authors concluded that under adequate management legumes can be 
successfully grown on mine soils. The results indicate that legumes inoculated with 
the appropriate Rhizobia spp, can supply nitrogen for other non-nitrogen-fixing 
plants. Beyond the results reported, this article incorporates a good review of per- 
tinent literature. 

111, Campion, P., and D. K. Benner. Establishing Permanent Vegetation on Coal 
Refuse Without a Four-Foot Layer of Topsoil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface 
Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp 71-78. 

The purpose of this study in Wise County, VA was to demonstrate a cost-effective 
method of producing a vegetative cover on coal refuse without the addition of a 4-ft 
layer of topsoil. Six substrate treatments were ultilized and seeded with two dif- 
ferent seed mixtures, a standard reclamation mix or a stress-tolerant mix, by two 
different methods, broadcast seeding or hydroseeding. Two different aspects were 
tested, a north-facing slope and a south-facing slope. Plant production on a dry 
weight basis and percent plant cover were determined. Yield was found to be the 
highest on the ISO-imn replaced mine soil treatment. Fly-ash application decreased 
yield, and the yield was lower than for that on the bare refuse alone for the first 
year. Yield for the stress-tolerant mixture was significantly higher than for the 
standard reclamation mix. By increasing the depth of applied mulch, the percent veg- 
etative cover also increased. The high yield and dense cover on the refuse material 
with 150 mm of replaced topsoil indicate that it is possible to establish vegetation 
on coal refuse without a 4-ft layer of replaced topsoil. The cost effectiveness of 
using this method is discussed. 

112, Carpenter, S, B., and R, A, Eigel, Reclaiming Surface Mines With Black 
Locust Fuel Plantations. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Symposium, 
Coal Conference and Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 23-25, 1979), 
McGraw-Hill, 1979, pp, 301-307, 

This article reports results obtained from a study conducted in eastern Kentucky that 
examined biomass production in black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L,) plantations 
established for fuel production on reclaimed surface-mined sites. Plantations were 
established by both seeding and transplanting. Yields were also determined on cop- 
pice production following initial harvest. The study included estimates of the heat 
content of the wood produced, permitting expression of production in terms of heat 
content per unit land area (Btu/ha) . The authors concluded that fuel plantation sys- 
tems such as the one studied are economically favorable where costs of site prepara- 
tion and plantation establishment are part of the reclamation process, 

113, Carpenter, S, B, , D, H. Graves, and R, A, Eigel, Producing Black Locust Bio- 
mass for Fuel on Southern Surface Mines, Energy Commun, , v. 5, No. 2, 1979, pp. 101- 
108. 

The potential use of black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in establishing fuel 
plantations on reclaimed mined lands is discussed. Results from field studies indi- 
cated that in unmanaged stands from 2 to 13 years old in harsh surface-mine sites, 
black locust dry weight yields ranged from 2 to 28 t per acre. The authors feel 
that with the establishment of fuel plantations and the application of appropriate 



82 

sllvicultural methods , these yields could be Increased and the fuel plantation con- 
cept become economically feasible. Black locust biomass yield data for 72 sample 
sites on surface-mined lands are provided, together with an outline of future re- 
search directions. This article is applicable to reclamation planning in the Inte- 
rior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

114. Carpenter, S. B., D. H. Graves, and R. R. Kruspe. Individual Tree Mulching 
as an Aid to the Establishment of Trees on Surface Mine Spoil. Reclam. Reveg., v. 1, 
No. 3/4, 1978, pp. 139-142. 

This study investigated the amount of soil surface area that needs to be covered by 
mulch in order to significantly raise the survival of tree seedlings. A second ob- 
jective was to test a variety of mulching materials. American sycamore ( Platanus 
occidentalis L.) 1-0 seedlings, European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), 
loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) , and Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) were 
planted on surface mine spoil near Colmar, KY. The mulch treatments consisted of 
control (no mulch), 0.9- by 0.9-m of clear polyethylene plastic, 0.9- by 0.9-m fiber- 
glass mat, 15.2-cm fiberglass disc, 30.5-cm fiberglass disc, latex rubber spray (1:5 
rubbery polymer emulsion-water mixture sprayed in a 0.3-m-diameter circle), and bark 
(0.012 m-^ applied in a circular fashion). Parameters of interest were spoil moisture 
and temperature and the growth and survival of the tree seedlings after one season. 
The fiberglass mat and polyethylene plastic raised the level of soil moisture above 
that of the control, while the bark mulch significantly lowered soil moisture. The 
highest surface temperatures occurred under the polyethylene plastic and the lowest 
under the fiberglass mat. Effects of other treatments did not significantly differ 
from those with the control. The polyethylene plastic and fiberglass mat treatments 
resulted in a significant increase in seedling survival over that with the control. 
Survival with latex spray and fiberglass disc treatments did not differ significantly 
from that with the unmulched control. The bark mulch resulted in a significantly 
lower survival rate than the unmulched control. The authors conclude that survival, 
vigor, and growth are increased under conditions that provide more surface area under 
mulch, such as the polyethylene plastic or fiberglass mats. 

115. Carpenter, S. B., R. F. Wittwer, D. H. Graves, and R. E. Daniels. A Compari- 
son of Broadcast Seeding and Spot Seeding of Black Locust on Eastern Kentucky Mine 
Soil. Paper in 1981 S3nnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Rec- 
lamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 257- 
260. 

This article compares two methods of establishing black locust on surface mine spoils 
in Kentucky, broadcast seeding versus spot seeding. Black locust ( Robinia pseudoaca- 
cia L.) was chosen as the trial species because of its potential use as a biomass 
fuel. The experimental design consisted of testing two aspects (north and south) and 
10 treatments-broadcast seeding at 5 seeding rates and spot seeding at 5 seeding 
rates. Spot seeding of black locust resulted in better survival, greater growth, and 
stands with more evenly distributed trees. 

116. Carpenter, S. B., R. F. Wittwer, D. H. Graves, and R. A. Eigel. Production 
of Black Locust Biomass on Appalachian Surface Mines. Sec. in Woodpower: New Per- 
spectives on Forest Usage. Pergamon, 1981, pp. 161-176. 

This study was done to determine the biomass production and fuel potential of black 
locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) grown on reclaimed surface-mined sites in eastern 
Kentucky. The study was divided into three phases: (1) sampling the biomass pro- 
duced on previously established black locust stands, (2) establishing two black 
locust fuel plantations using direct seeding and containerized seedlings, and 
(3) harvesting a 5-year-old stand and measuring coppice (sprout) growth. The biomass 
produced ranged from an average of 4.7 t/ha for 2-year-old stands to 62.1 t/ha for 



83 

13-year-old stands. These results are comparable to other yields obtained for black 
locust on surface-mined land. The site factors that influenced black, locust growth 
the most were clay content of the spoil material and slope of the terrain. Biomass 
was directly related to clay content and inversely related to slope. The heat con- 
tent of black locust grown on surface-mined land was found to be 33.1 million Btu/ 
cord (45.3 million Btu/ acre). The authors conclude that the concept of establishing 
fuel plantations of black locust by direct seeding on reclaimed surface-mined sites 
appears to be a promising solution to both reclamation problems and the development 
of an additional renewable energy resource in the Eastern United States. 

117. Carrel, J. E., J. E. DeMott, and D. M. Zwlght. Surface Mine Revegetation: 
Area Metering of Ground Cover. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Recla- 
mation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Natl. 
Coal Assoc, and Bituminous Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 8-11. 

A simple technique for remote determination of vegetative ground cover is described. 
A transfer of plant cover visible in a large-scale, vertical aerial photograph of 
the mineland area is prepared by delineating the area on a clear plastic sheet. A 
silhouette of the area is then made. The area occupied by vegetation is then mea- 
sured by passing the silhouette through a leaf area meter. The authors report that 
the method is rapid, accurate, and inexpensive. The method should be applicable 
nationwide. 

118. Carrel, J. E., C. J. Johannsen, T. W. Barney, and W. McFarland. Remote Mea- 
surements of Vegetative Cover in Surface Mines . Paper in Twelfth International Sym- 
posium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Volume III (Manila, Philippines, Apr. 20-26, 
1978). Environ. Res. Inst, of MI, Ann Arbor, MI, 1978, pp. 1653-1664. 

This study evaluated vegetative ground cover in Missouri by two semi-automatic tech- 
niques. The first technique used a leaf area meter to measure the extent of vegeta- 
tion as represented by darkened spots on clear plastic overlays made from aerial pho- 
tographs of mined lands. The second technique utilized an image-analyzing computer 
to scan, digitize, and classify ground cover detected in the same aerial photographs. 
The objectives of the study were to develop characterizations of specific revegeta- 
tion patterns that resulted from the reclamation methods used, to extend the devel- 
oped surface characterization to large mined areas using remote-sensing methods , and 
to provide detailed information to reclamation planners and monitors. Both tech- 
niques proved to be fast, accurate (85 to 95 pet), and relatively inexpensive methods 
to determine the extent of revegetation in surface mines. The computer system was 
found to be more versatile. However, these techniques cannot replace ground surveys 
for cover verification or more sophisticated monitoring systems. They do offer a 
time and money savings to those who must make policy decisions based on the degree of 
revegetation of a single surface mine. The authors conclude that the subjectivity in 
many decision processes regarding surface mine reclamation could be reduced or elimi- 
nated by using these techniques. 

119. Carrel, J. E., C, L, Kucera, A, P. Harrison, Jr., C. J. Johannsen, and R. W. 
Blauchar. Strip-Mine Reclamation: Criteria and Methods for Measurement of Revegeta- 
tion Success (U.S. DOE contract, Univ. of MO-Columbia) . U.S. DOE, DOE/EV/02758-8, 
Sept. 1982, 17 pp. 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate and identify suitable methods and criteria 
for determining revegetation success on reclaimed minelands in the Midwestern United 
States. Both direct and remote-sensing techniques for measuring plant growth cover, 
production, and species composition were tested. Fieldwork was conducted on old 
abandoned mines in Missouri and newly reclaimed mines in Missouri, Illinois, and Kan- 
sas. The authors concluded that direct, ground level measurements are necessary to 
obtain statistically valid data on plant performance such as crop and forage yield. 



84 

Remote-sensing methods were used to study the process of natural plant succession on 
abandoned coal mines. A three-step model is presented for describing patch dynamics 
of vegetation based on six case histories. The authors feel that this model could be 
used to project the rate and extent of secondary succession in other areas. A third 
study was conducted to examine decomposition of fescue and cellulose litter on sur- 
face mines and on a tallgrass prairie in Missouri. The rates of litter decompostion 
for grasslands were faster than reported in the literature. The authors concluded 
that rapid mineralization of plant tissues has serious implications for soil organic 
matter turnover and long-term fertility of reclaimed mine soils. This article is a 
good reference for planning and designing reclamation monitoring programs. While the 
study was conducted in the Interior Coal Mining Region, some of the methodology would 
be applicable in other regions. 

120. Carrel, J. E. , C. L. Kucera, C. J. Johannsen, and R. W. Blanchar. Strip- 
Mine Reclamation: Criteria and Methods for Measurement of Revegetation Success, 
Progress Report for Period Apr. 1, 1980-Mar. 31, 1981 (U.S. DOE Contract DE-AC02- 
76EV02758.A006). Univ. MO, Prog. Rep. COO-2758-7, Dec. 1980, 71 pp. 

The purpose of this study was to find suitable methods and criteria for determining 
the success of revegetation in midwestern prime agricultural lands strip-mined for 
coal. Direct and remote-sensing techniques are described for measuring plant ground 
cover, production, and species composition. Digital computer image analysis of color 
infrared aerial photographs, when compared to ground level measurements, provided a 
fast, accurate, and inexpensive way to determine plant ground cover and area. Howev- 
er, the remote-sensing approach was inferior to standard surface methods for detail- 
ing plant species composition and abundance. This reference is an interim progress 
report and has been included here because it contains extensive data collected during 
the study that could be of use in comparative studies. In addition, the authors pro- 
vide a more clear description of their methods in this report. The final report, 
published in 1982, has also been reviewed in this evaluation process and appears in 
this bibliography under the same principal author and main title. 

121. Carrel, J. E., K. Wieder, V. Leftwich, S. Weems , C. L. Kucera, L. Bouchard, 
and M. Game. Strip Mine Reclamation: Production and Decomposition of Plant Litter. 
Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, v. 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for 
Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 
1979, pp. 676. 

Preliminary results are reported of plant production and decomposition studies from 
strip-mined areas in central and western Missouri. Plant species composition and 
abundance were measured by quadrant sampling along transects. The standing plant 
crop at the end of the growing season ranged from 670 to 810 g/m^ in strip-mined 
areas undergoing natural recolonization. Standing crop yield on strip-mined areas 
planted less than a decade ago with a mixture of legumes and grasses was 200 g/m^. 
Litter decomposition on revegetated minelands was found to be highly variable. Low 
decay rates were reported for litter samples placed on bare soil in surface-mined 
areas. Rapid decomposition rates were found for litter samples placed in vegetated 
areas. A major determinant of the decay rate appeared to be the initial carbon- 
nitrogen ratio. This article is a good reference for those interested in ecological 
aspects of surface mineland revegetation in the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

122. Carter, R. P., R. R. Hinchman, and S. D. Zellmer. Land Reclamation Program. 
Annual Report, 1980. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-12, May 1981, 107 pp. 

This annual report describes the Argonne Land Reclamation Program and reviews sev- 
eral ongoing or recently completed field and laboratory studies. Preliminary re- 
sults, accomplishments, and planned future activities are presented for the Jim 
Bridger Mine Project in southwest Wyoming; the Kellerman Mine Project in Tuscaloosa 



85 

County, AL; the Bighorn Mine-Tongue River Project, near Sheridan, WY; the Alaska 
Project considering coal mining impacts throughout that State; the Maconpin County 
Refuse Reclamation Demonstration Project near Staunton, XL; and the Navajo Mine 
Project — Plant Breeding and Selection of Plant Materials for Reclamation of Arid 
Sites (New Mexico) conducted by Brigham Young University. The information presented 
in these discussions is primarily relevant to the coal mining regions in which the 
projects are located. The report was evaluated as a whole. Reference to a partic- 
ular keyword used in the evaluation process may not be found in each research project 
description. 

123. Cech, F. C, and R. N. Keys. Establishment and Early Growth of Sweetgum 
Planted on Disturbed Land. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation 
With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madison- 
ville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, 
IN, 1983, pp. 217-228. 

Sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.) seedlings from 34 seed sources that represent 
the natural range of this species were planted on a forest site, a reclaimed deep- 
mine refuse pile, and a reclaimed surface mine. These sites are in northeastern Wesb 
Virginia and western Maryland. Height growth and survival differed among sources and 
sites. Fasi.est growth was exhibited by seedlings from northern sources; however, 
these seedlings were the shortest due to susceptibility to winter dieback. The for- 
est site she ^d the best growth and survival. Low pH contributed to poor growth and 
survival on tne reclaimed refuse pile. Competition and possible allelopathic effects 
by grasses and other herbaceous cover contributed to poor growth on the reclaimed 
mine site. This article provides a good reference on source selection for planning 
the use of sweetgum in reclamation projects throughout the Eastern and Interior Coal 
Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

124. Chalfant, F. R. , H. Cunningham, and J. A. Holbrook, II. Agriculture as a 
Post-Mining Land Use Following Mountaintop Removal Mining. Paper in 1980 Symposium 
on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 1- 
5, 1980). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1980, pp. 10-22. 

This article discusses the feasibility of agriculture as a postmining land use alter- 
native following mountaintop removal by mining. Office of Surface Mining regulations 
are discussed regarding mountaintop reclamation requirements. A set of criteria is 
presented by the authors that could serve as a basis for predicting potential success 
of farming on reclaimed mountaintop sites; i.e., planning, water needs, plant selec- 
tion, etc. Soil conditions are the most important criteria for determining agricul- 
tural feasibility. A table is given listing soil physical and chemical criteria for 
developing agriculture as a land use. 

125. Chambers, J. C. Measuring Species Diversity on Revegetated Surface Mines: 
An Evaluation of Techniques. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Paper INT-322, 1983, 15 pp. 

The three most commonly used techniques for measuring species diversity in plant com- 
munities are reviewed in this report. The three techniques are (1) diversity in- 
dices, (2) rank correlation tests, and (3) similarity indices. The suitability of 
each technique for assessing species diversity on mined land is discussed, along with 
an evaluation of the most often used indices, test statistics, or coefficients of 
each technique. 

126. Chambers, J. C. , and R. W. Brown. Methods for Vegetation Sampling and Analy- 
ses on Revegetated Mined Lands. U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. IT-151, 1983, 57 pp. 

Methods of sampling vegetation for the comparison of revegetated mined lands and ref- 
erence areas are outlined in this handbook. Various components of vegetation sam- 
pling are discussed in detail, with emphasis on the selection of reference areas and 



86 

the methodologies involved in cover, production, density, and species diversity esti- 
mates. A method of comparing species diversity of revegetated and reference areas is 
also presented. The vegetation sampling techniques are discussed in relation to the 
revegetation of improved pastures, grazing lands, and woodlands. 

127. Chapman, D. L. , B. S. McGinnes , and R. L. Downing. Breeding Bird Populations 
in Response to the Natural Revegetation of Abandoned Contour Mines. Paper in Surface 
Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States, (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-78/8i, 1978, pp. 328-332. 

This study was conducted in southwestern Virginia to investigate the relationship be- 
tween breeding bird populations and the structural aspects of natural revegetation. 
Twelve study areas on abandoned contour mine land were surveyed. Units of similar 
vegetation were identified within each disturbed area. To evaluate habitat hetero- 
geneity, a series of indices, based on the Raw Index of Diversity, were developed to 
express the variability of the vegetation within each area. Several positive rela- 
tionships were found between breeding bird populations and habitat heterogeneity. 
The strongest association was between the number of breeding species and the percent 
ground cover in the 0-1 layer. This relationship was found through all successional 
stages. The results of this study suggest that during early successional stages a 
quick vegetative cover should be developed, followed by tree plantings. The authors 
conclude that tree seedlings planted among herbaceous species would achieve these 
objectives . 

128. Chichester, F. W. Premining Evaluation of Forage Grass Growth on Mine Soil 
Materials From an East-Central Texas Lignite Site. Soil Sci., Apr. 1983, pp. 236- 
244. 

This paper reports the results of a greenhouse study designed to examine the growth 
of several warm season forage grasses and a cool season pasture mix of oats (Avena 
sativa L.) and clover (Trifolium spp.) on mixtures of soil profile horizon materials. 
The author concluded that , if an adequate supply of water and nutrients were pro- 
vided, the mixtures of soil profile horizon materials evaluated had the same 
potential for forage grass production as the genetic topsoil at the mine site. The 
results reported could be applicable to study or planning of reclamation on sites 
with thin topsoil. 

129. Chironis, N. P. Guide to Plants for Mine Spoils. Coal Age, v. 82, No. 7, 
1977, pp. 122-130. 

This article provides information on 21 species of shrubs, trees, legumes, and 
grasses that have been grown successfully on different spoil material across the 
United States. Included is a short discussion on a few soil factors that affect the 
success of plantings. For the species described information is given on growth hab- 
it, tolerances (acid and drought), varieties available, and the benefit a particular 
species may provide to the site. The cover provided for wildlife and the ability to 
fix nitrogen are examples of benefits that a particular species can provide to a 
site. 

130. Chironis, N. P. Reedgrass Greens Slurry Ponds. Coal Age, v. 87, No. 4, 
1982, pp. 86-91. 

The author discusses the use of reedgrass ( Phragmites australis Trin.) in revegetat- 
ing slurry areas at a site in southern Illinois. A new method of establishing vege- 
tation on slurry areas without the use of topsoil is needed because of the high cost 
of covering the area with 4 ft of borrow material. A good discussion is included 
on the morphological characteristics and adaptability of reedgrass to differing envi- 
ronmental conditions. The establishment of reedgrass on slurry areas was accom- 
plished by sectioned rhizomes, which are similar to root cuttings, hand planted using 



87 

techniques similar to those used for tree seedlings. Results indicate that within 8 
days of initial planting lateral root and vertical shoot development had occurred. 
By the end of the third growing season, shoot height was over 6 ft with stand den- 
sities over 130 stems per square yard on favorable sites. These results indicate 
that it may be possible to establish vegetative cover on refuse areas without an ini- 
tial topsoil cover. 

131. Chugh, Y. P., and S. L. Barua. Planning Integrated Mining and Reclamation 
Operations in Area Strip Coal Mines. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hy- 
drology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, 
Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 5-11. 

The authors present a methodology for planning integrated mining and reclamation op- 
erations for area strip coal mines. Reclamation is done concurrently with mining and 
lags behind the mining by a few spoils. This integrated operation implies (1) none 
or very little topsoil or subsoil is stockpiled and (2) operations of rock spoil 
grading, and subsoil and topsoil removal and replacement are conducted to minimize 
the adverse interactions among these operations. By utilizing this method there is a 
potential of reducing reclamation costs by 20 to 30 pet. 

132. Chugh, Y. P., and R. Kharkar. Environmental Assessment of Surface Coal Min- 
ing in the United States. J. Mines Met. & Fuels, June 1982, pp. 326-336, 340. 

This article provides a good, relatively up-to-date overview of the Federal legisla- 
tion and agencies presently regulating surface coal mining in the United States. In 
addition, primary mining and reclamation techniques as well as regional environmental 
concerns and their mitigation are reviewed. This article could provide good back- 
ground information to individuals with little or no knowledge of surface coal mining 
and mineland reclamation in the United States. The paper is national in scope. 

133. Chugh, Y. P., and K. V. K. Prasad. Appraisal of Deeper Soil Loosening Equip- 
ment for Use in Reclaiming Illinois Prime Farmland After Surface Coal Mining (con- 
tract J0225015, South. IL Univ.). BuMines OFR 33-84, 1983, 112 pp.; NTIS PB84- 
166644. 

This study appraises the deeper soil loosening equipment available in the United 
States and abroad that has potential for Illinois prime farmland reclamation. The 
types of equipment evaluated operate in the 1- to 4-ft depth range. The evaluations 
were based on written and/or oral contacts with equipment manufacturers and rec- 
lamation experts. The results indicated that several manufacturers in the United 
States, West Germany, and England market static and vibratory deeper soil loosening 
equipment which may have potential for application in Illinois. The information con- 
veyed should be pertinent to prime farmland reclamation to reduce soil bulk density 
throughout the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

134. Cline, J. F., and V. A. Uresk. Revegetation of Disturbed Grounds in the 
Semi-Arid Climate of South Central Washington. Health Phys., v. 36, 1979, pp. 289- 
294. 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of various soil treat- 
ments in establishing a self-sustaining vegetative cover on soil fill overlying a 
portion of a former radioactive waste pond. The soil was stabilized sufficiently to 
resist wind erosion using treatments that incorporated straw, Wyoming bentonite clay, 
or a straw-clay mixture. Successful revegetation was achieved in 1 year. Cheatgrass 
( Bromus tectorum L.), a shallow-rooted species, was planted to retard the growth of 
deep-rooted radionuclide carriers. The cheatgrass maintained itself through three 
growing seasons. The authors felt that the cheatgrass will probably persist in the 
study area for several decades. This study was conducted at the U.S. DOE's Han- 
ford site in south-central Washington, and the results are specific for that area. 



88 

However, they could find application to specific reclamation problems in the Northern 
Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions as well. 

135. Coal Age. Guide For Revegetation in Eastern U.S. V. 86, No. 7, 1981, 
pp. 76-79, 82-86. 

This article is a good general reference to the revegetation of surface-mined land in 
the Eastern United States. The information provided deals with vegetation establish- 
ment, from the time of seedbed preparation through mulching. Included in the discus- 
sion are sections on the various seeding techniques available for herbaceous species, 
recommended varieties and mixtures , and seeding times and rates . There is also a 
short discussion on tree and shrub plantings. Various soil amendments that aid in 
vegetation establishment are discussed. The information presented in this article is 
based on material compiled by B. L. Rafaill, W. G. Vogel, and R. R. Hinchman. 

136. Coal Age. Update on Reclamation Regulations. V. 86, No. 7, 1981, pp. 68-73. 

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (Public Law 95-87) created a new Fed- 
eral agency, the Office of Surface Mining (OSM). OSM regulations contain two types 
of regulatory guidelines: (1) those dealing with performance standards or goals, and 
(2) those concerning the design criteria for all construction in the mine plan area. 
This report summarizes the important points of each regulatory section that affects 
the reclamation phase of a surface mining operation. 

137. The Coal Miner. Alaska's Usibelli Coal Mine Expands Info Export Markets. 
V. 7, No. 5, pp. 36, 38. 

This is a general article that deals with the reclamation efforts at the Usibelli 
Coal Mine in Alaska. The article contains very little specific information on reveg- 
etation and reclamation other than to mention the various research projects that have 
occurred at the site since 1971. 

138. Coal Mining and Processing. Indiana' a Small Mines Showcase Scraper-Dozer 
System. V. 20, No. 6, July, 1983, pp. 30-31. 

This article briefly describes a scraper dozer system being used by small opera- 
tors in Indiana for surface coal mining and reclamation. Treatment of reclamation is 
general. 

139. Coaldrake, J. E., and M. J. Russell. Rehabilitation With Pasture After Open- 
Cut Coal Mining at Three Sites in the Bowen Coal Basin of Queensland. Reclam. 
Reveg., v. 1, 1978, pp. 1-8. 

Field trials were conducted to develop a method for, establishing permanent vegeta- 
tive cover on three reclaimed areas of the Bowen Coal Basin located in Queensland, 
Australia. Species trials were made with grasses and tropical legumes. The key to 
rapid and successful rehabilitation of these areas is the application of superphos- 
phate at a rate of 400 kg/ha. Large increases in cover and yield resulted for each 
species at each site due to the application of superphosphate. Response to nitrogen 
fertilizer application was variable. 

140. Coe, C. A., and J. M. Klopatek. Mycorrhizae in Reclaimed Soils. Paper in 
1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Nov. 17-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 399-405. 

Two greenhouse studies were conducted to determine the presence of vesicular-abrus- 
cular mycorrhizae (VAM) in soils of undisturbed (reference area) and disturbed (re- 
claimed) plant communities in the Black Mesa coal region in northeastern Arizona. 
Soils were taken from four undisturbed plant communities; three reclaimed soils, one 
prelaw and two postlaw (Public Law 95-87), and three topsoil storage piles ranging 
from 1 to 3 years in age. All soils were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity. 



89 

saturation percent, and textural class. The first study was done to reveal the in- 
teraction of VAM with plant roots of sudan grass ( Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf.). 
The results of this study showed that mycorrhizal infection was directly related to 
the different soil types. Plants grown in natural soils had greater mycorrhizal in- 
fection and total biomass than plants grown in disturbed soils. The second study 
consisted of four treatments which were used to determine if different soil sub- 
strates had varying capacities to support mycorrhizal fungi and how VAM affects the 
growth of four-wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). The treatments 
consisted of four-wing saltbush grown in sterile and unsterile soil inoculated and 
noninoculated with mycorrhizal fungi. Four-wing saltbush grown in disturbed and un- 
disturbed soils inoculated with the mycorrhizal fungi Glomus mosseae and Glomus fusi- 
culatus had higher percent infection and greater biomass than noninoculated soils. 
The authors conclude that disturbance has several detrimental effects on the native 
mycorrhizal populations . 

141. Colbert, T. A. Non-Quantitative and Non- Vegetative Reclamation Success Cri- 
teria and the Requirements of the U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. 
Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, 
& Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO., Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range 
Sci. Dept., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 56-59. 

The limitations and shortcomings associated with the existing regulatory requirements 
for premining and postmining vegetation inventories and reclamation success crite- 
ria are discussed. It is stressed that accepted inventory methods do not provide a 
means of considering land use, successional trend, or conditions. The author feels 
that the present regulations put too much emphasis on quantitative methods to make 
objective evaluations of revegetation success based on systematic statistical compar- 
isons of premining and postmining conditions. He suggests instead that the require- 
ments could be made more flexible by allowing consideration of professional judgment 
in determining reclamation success. Various alternative criteria for determining 
reclamation success are proposed, including livestock-carrying capacity, wildlife- 
carrying capacity or evidence of inhabitation by wildlife species, crop or timber 
production or economic appraisal of potential productivity, soil loss or sediment 
yield, landscape design criteria, and conversion to other developed uses. This arti- 
cle is primarily applicable to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal 
Mining Regions. 

142. Colling, G. SEAM — Technology Takes on Surface Mining Problems. Paper in 
Forestry Research: What's New in the West. U.S. For. Ser., Apr. 1977, pp. 1-4. 

This article describes the Surface Environment and Mining Program (SEAM), established 
by the Forest Service in 1973. SEAM was designed to supply the most current reclama- 
tion and planning technology to help land managers cope with problems of mineral man- 
agement. The article provides brief, nontechnical descriptions of SEAM-sponsored 
research, planning, and application efforts that were conducted throughout the West. 

143. Collyer, L. Carrying Capacity as an Alternate Revegetation Standard. Paper 
in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & 
Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. 
Dept., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 50-52. 

The author presents an alternative approach to the reference area and historical data 
methods of evaluating revegetation success. The method uses carrying capacity as the 
revegetation standard against which revegetation success would be judged. In the 
opinion of the author, the carrying capacity approach increases the flexibility for 
measuring revegetation success on lands where the potential exists to improve the 
vegetative type. The author supports the use of this method with stock weight gain 
data from literature published by other authors. Wildlife considerations are not 



90 

addressed. The method is compared with the other standard for evaluating revegeta- 
tion success. This method could find application throughout the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions . 

144. Conservation Consultants, Inc., and Ze liars-Williams , Inc. Estech General 
Chemicals Corporation, Duette Mine, Manatee County, Florida. Res. Doc: Reclamation 
Methodology. Draft EIS. U.S. EPA, EPA 904/9-79-044 F, Oct. 1979, 57 pp. 

This document provides an excellent description of proposed reclamation and revegeta- 
tion methods for a phosphate mine in Florida. All parts of the minesite are treated. 
Revegetation methodology includes separate procedures for improved pasture establish- 
ment, reforestation, enhancement of unmined palmetto rangeland, and marsh revegeta- 
tion. Special reclamation methods are described for wetland restoration, lake cre- 
ation, and natural revegetation. Although the document was written specifically for 
a phosphate mine, many of the procedures are applicable to reclamation of surface 
coal mines . This publication is an excellent reference applicable to reclamation 
planning in this portion of the Gulf Coast Coal Mining Region. 

145. Conwell, C. N. , and S. Weston. Reclaiming Mining Lands in Alaska. Paper in 
Stability in Coal Mining (Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Stabil- 
ity in Coal Mining, Vancouver, B.C., 1978). Miller Freeman Pub., Inc., San Fran- 
cisco, CA, 1979, pp. 459-462. 

The authors provide a brief general statement of surface coal mine reclamation in 
Alaska. The discussion is centered around experience gained from reclamation efforts 
at the Usibelli coal mine near Healy, AK. Although few hard data are provided for 
the topics considered, the discussion will be of interest to individuals with limited 
knowledge of surface coal mine reclamation efforts in Alaska. 

146. Cook, F. Evaluation of the Environmental Effects of Western Surface Coal 
Mining, Volume I (Mathematica, Inc., Princeton, NJ) . EPA Ind. Environ. Res. Lab., 
EPA-600/7-79-110, May 1979, 136 pp. 

The author presents a general review of methods used for surface mining of coal in 
the Western United States, the environmental effects of those mining methods, and 
recommendations to alter or reduce both short- and long-term environmental damage. 
The overall evaluation of revegetation and erosion control practices is good. Mine 
spoils in the West can be successfully revegetated to produce at least as good a 
cover as the premining cover, particularly where topsoil is replaced and proper seed- 
bed preparation, seeding, and amendment procedures are used. Long-term survival, 
however, is still uncertain. Although general in nature, the article provides a com- 
prehensive total picture of the mining and reclamation procedures applicable to west- 
ern surface coal mines. 

147. Creighton, J. L. , R. N. Muller, and R. F. Wittwer. Biomass and Nutrient As- 
similation of Intensively-Cultured Black Locust on Eastern Kentucky Mine Spoil. Pa- 
per in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 503-508. 

This study evaluated the effects of several cultural treatments (fertilization, ir- 
rigation, bark mulch, and competition control) and establishment methods (direct- 
seeding and planting seedlings) on the biomass accumulation by black locust ( Robinia 
pseudoacacia L.) planted on surface mine spoil near Middlesboro, KY. A second objec- 
tive was to examine the patterns of nutrient assimilation in the aboveground portions 
of the stand. Black locust that was direct-seeded at a rate of 12.0 kg/ha resulted 
in greater total biomass and was more productive than planted seedlings. However, if 
seedlings are planted at a closer spacing (0.9 by 0.9 m) , they will outproduce 
direct-seeded black locust planted at a rate of 6.0 kg/ha. Bark mulching was found 
to be the minimum cultural treatment needed to insure successful establishment and 



91 

increase yields on direct-seeded plots. The other cultural treatments failed to show 
any significant effects. The concentration of nutrients in a tree was not affected 
by either cultural treatment or establishment method. The nutrient content of the 
various components of a tree had the following order: leaves > branch > stem > bark 
for N, P, K, and Mg. For calcium the order was leaves > branch > bark > stem. Ap- 
proximately 40 pet of these elements in a stand were found in the foliage and could 
be saved, from a nutrient cycling standpoint, by dormant season harvesting. Based on 
soil analyses, the N, P, and K assimilated in the aboveground portion of these stands 
amounted to 12.2, 63.3, and 35.7 pet of the sites' nutrient reserves, respectively. 
The authors conclude that the black locust-surface mine-fuel plantation trio can be 
successfully merged only through awareness of the interaction of site, treatments, 
and establishment methods on the productivity and nutrient dynamics of a given site. 

148. Crockett, B. R. , and C. J. Beimers. The Reclamation of a Strip Mine To Pro- 
vide a Recreation Area. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedi- 
mentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1981, pp. 511-516. 

This article does not discuss revegetation techniques used to reclaim strip-mined 
areas. However, it describes the study, design, and construction techniques used in 
reclaiming water-filled strip mine trenches for recreational uses in Missouri. The 
main emphasis of the paper was to describe the design used to create 1 large lake 
from 14 smaller ones to develop a multiple-use recreational area. Hydrologic and wa- 
ter quality studies were done to determine the impact of construction on surrounding 
areas. It was determined that the project had no adverse affects on water quality, 
land use, or conservation practices in the area. 

149. Crofts, K. A., and K. E. Carlson. Transplanting Techniques Used in the Es- 
tablishment of Native Vegetation. Paper in Proceedings: High-Altitude Revegetation 
Workshop No. 5, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 1982. CO Wa- 
ter Resour. Res. Inst., CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inform. Ser. No. 48, Dec. 
1982, pp. 58-78. 

The authors present a comparison of various accepted surface mineland revegetation 
techniques in terms of their economic and operational feasibility. The discussions 
of various methods are based both on data obtained by the authors and on data re- 
ported in the literature by other researchers. Based on a cost analysis drawing on 
data from 17 studies, the authors found no instance where planting containerized 
stock rather than bareroot stock was justified. Three mechanized seedling trans- 
planters were compared: (1) the Modified Whitefield Transplanter, (2) the Forestland 
Transplanter, and (3) the Dryland Plug Planter. Several methods of plant transplant- 
ing equipment and methods are compared. The authors contend that transplanting ma- 
ture vegetation onto disturbed areas will not replace other revegetation methods. 
However, with time, cost and specific environmental conditions could prove this meth- 
od to be the most effective. The analyses and discussions contained in this report 
are primarily pertinent to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions . 

150. Crookston, R. B., and J. H. Merino. Reclamation of Spent Oil Shale. Paper 
in American Mining Congress, Mining Convention Session Papers, Set No. 3, Environmen- 
tal Controls I & II (San Francisco, CA, Sept. 11-14, 1977). Am. Min. Congr., Wash- 
ington, DC, 1977, 31 pp. 

This paper reviews the methods that the TOSCO Corp. has developed for the reclamation 
of processed oil shale. The physical and chemical properties of the spent shale 
are discussed. The major Interest in these studies was to establish the material's 
engineering properties in relation to embankment stability and water movement through 
the embankments . Health hazards involved in shale oil production and processed shale 



92 

exposure are examined. A number of revegetation studies are reviewed. The major 
problems encountered In establishing vegetation on spent oil shale are low fertility, 
poor infiltration rate, and high soluble salt content. These problems have been 
overcome through the application of fertilizer, the addition of topsoil, talus cover, 
or mulch, and supplemental irrigation to leach soluble salts lower in the profile. 
The research reviewed in this paper is also pertinent to some aspects of surface coal 
mine reclamation in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

151. Cross, E. A., and F. C. Gabrielson. Reclamation of Surface Mine Spoil. 
Univ. AL, School of Mines and Energy Dev., Res. Rep., Sept 1981, 50 pp. 

This publication reports ongoing and completed research on revegetation studies on 
alkaline shale spoil from the Corona Mine in southern Walker County, Al. Results of 
completed studies are included in this annotation. Greenhouse and field studies to 
evaluate the effect of Pisolitus tinctorius ectomycorrhizal fungi on the growth and 
survival of southern red oak ( Quercus falcata Michx.) showed that after one growing 
season the fungi enhanced neither survival or growth. Another experiment evaluated 
the effects of vegetative cover and fertilization on growth, survival and tip moth 
damage of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) planted in fields of weeping lovegrass ( Era- 
grostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees)-Kobe lespedeza ( Lespedeza striata var. Kobe), common 
bermudagrass ( Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers . )-Kobe lesedeza-sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza 
cuneata (Dum.-Cours.)G. Don.), and in unseeded areas containing sparse native vegeta- 
tion. Fertilization improved all aspects of tree development, but the presence of 
vegetation retarded development, although tip moth damage was less. Several green- 
house experiments were designed to evaluate the effects of soil materials and amend- 
ments on the germination and growth of weeping lovegrass and perennial ryegrass 
( Lolium perenne L.). NH4NO3 treatment inhibited germination and growth of weeping 
lovegrass, as did acidification of the spoil (pH 7.2) and the addition of coal wash- 
ings, but superphosphate fertilization yielded the greatest biomass of any treatment. 
Weeping lovegrass grows best on acid soils whereas perennial ryegrass prefers more 
basic conditions. However, in combination the grasses grew best and were compatable 
in a mix of 25 pet spoil and 75 pet topsoil at a combined pH of 4.6. Under this con- 
dition the ryegrass did not overpower the lovegrass, as is normally the case. 

152. Cross, E. A., F. C. Gabrielson, and D. K. Bradshaw. Some Effects of Vegeta- 
tive Competition and Fertilizer on Growth, Survival, and Tip Moth Damage in Loblolly 
Pine Planted on Alkaline Shale Surface Mine Spoil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 
1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 59-63. 

Growth, survival, and tip moth damage of 1/0 loblolly pine seedlings ( Pinus taeda L.) 
were monitored on untopsoiled alkaline shale in Alabama. Different combinations of 
herbaceous species and fertilizers were used to assess their effects on loblolly pine 
growth and survival. Tree survival and diameter growth after 2 years were highest on 
bare spoil compared to those areas with vegetative cover, but tip moth damage to the 
main leaders of loblolly pine was greatest on bare spoil. It is suggested that when 
erosion is not a major concern, herbaceous seeding should be delayed for 1 year on 
areas planted with loblolly pine seedlings in order to increase tree survival and 
growth. 

153. Crowder, A. A., B. E. McLaughlin, G. K. Rutherford, and G. W. van Loon. Site 
Factors Affecting Semi -Natural Herbaceous Vegetation on Tailings at Copper Cliff, 
Ontario. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. 177-193. 

This study was conducted to relate the chemical and physical properties of a tail- 
ings disposal site to the distribution and elemental content of the herbaceous spe- 
cies growing on the tailings. The location of this study is Copper Cliff, Ontario, 



93 

Canada. The area had been intermittently seeded from 1958 to 1962 and was maintained 
by liming and fertilization. Frequency of occurrence and percentage cover values of 
herbaceous species were obtained from random locations along three transects . Plant 
and tailings materials were also collected for elemental analysis. Of the species 
originally seeded, redtop ( Agrostis alba L.) and Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis 
L.) have become dominant on the site, while the remaining original seeded species 
have become rare. Important colonizing species were ticklegrass (Agrostis scabra 
Willd.), quackgrass (Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.) reed canary grass ( Phalarls arun- 
dinacea L.), and alkali grass ( Puccinellia distans (L.) Pari,). Microclimatic data 
indicated that the tailings area is comparable to old fields of the area. Concentra- 
tions of Ca, Mg, K, Mn, and Zn in the tailings were also comparable to values ob- 
tained from agricultural soils. However, Cu, Fe, and Ni values were very high in 
both the tailings and plants. Except for these high contents, the tailings provide a 
satisfactory growth medium with respect to plant nutrients and microclimate. 

154. Cull, C. A., and E. J. DePuit. The Rosebud Mine: A Case Study in Western 
Reclamation Efforts Through Research. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation 
Symposium, Coal Conference and Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 
23-25, 1979). McGraw-Hill, 1979, pp. 241-254. 

This article discusses past and ongoing research at a surface coal mine site in 
southeastern Montana. This research and future research needs are discussed in the 
general context of State and Federal law, national energy policy, and projected fu- 
ture energy demands. The author stresses three main points: (1) Nationwide demand 
for coal will increase, (2) in many cases current regulations and minimum performance 
standards for mining and reclamation are not cost effective, and thus are inflation- 
ary and in need of modification in order to reach an equitable compromise between 
economic concerns and environmental considerations, and (3) there is a continued need 
for problem-solving-oriented research. This article provides a good historical re- 
view of coal production and reclamation research activities in this particular area 
and offers a view of reclamation and reclamation research activities from the indus- 
trial perspective. 

155. Cundell, A. M. The Role of Microorganisms in the Revegetation of Strip-Mined 
Land in the Western United States. J. Range Manage., v. 30, No. 4, 1977, pp. 299- 
305. 

This review discusses the role of microorganisms in the reclamation of spent oil 
shale wastes in the Piceance Basin of northwestern Colorado and overburden from lig- 
nite strip mining in western North Dakota. The revegetation of these areas is lim- 
ited by low organic matter content, salinity, fine soil texture, lack of nitrogen and 
phosphorus, and the slow rate of soil formation. Some of these limitations can be 
alleviated by microbial processes. These processes are responsible for the accretion 
of soil organic matter, nitrogen fixation, and the modification of adverse soil prop- 
erties. Strategies to take advantage of microbial activities to encourage plant 
growth are discussed. These strategies include fertilization, seeding, mulching, 
inoculating the rhizosphere of perennial grasses with free-living heterotrophic 
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the production of sulfuric acid by sulfur-oxidizing 
bacteria to lower the pH of the spoil. The author concludes that soil microorganisms 
have an important role in the reclamation of spoil material, especially in the cre- 
ation of soil organic matter and the accumulation of sufficient nitrogen for plant 
growth. 

156. Currie, P. 0. Revegetation for Flexibility in Future Use and Planned Manage- 
ment of Reclaimed Land. Paper in S3nnposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Land? 
(Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, 
pp. 16-1 to 16-12. 



94 

The author presents concepts that would take maximum advantage of complementary range 
by selecting plant species in combinations that could insure forage or hay production 
throughout the year. The author contends that selection of plant species to be used 
in reclamation should include introduced species and newly developed hybrids , in 
addition to native plants. This article is basically a literature review. The con- 
cepts presented are useful for choosing species for reestabishing rangeland on sur- 
face mined land in the Northern Great Plains and portions of the Rocky Mountain Coal 
Mining Regions. 

157. Curtis, R. L. , D. K. Fowler, C. H. Nicholson, and L. F. Adkisson. Breeding 
Bird Populations on Three Contour Surface Mines Reclaimed Under Differing Intensities 
and Types of Treatment, Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs 
in the Eastern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/ 
OBS-78/81, 1978, pp. 369-375. 

The author evaluated the effects of three reclamation techniques on species composi- 
tion, diversity, and abundance of avifauna found on three contour surface mines lo- 
cated on the eastern edge of the Cumberland Plateau. As the amount of vegetation in- 
creased, breeding bird density, diversity, and number of species also increased. The 
authors suggested that there was a higher degree of habitat diversity on the sites 
where the vegetation had been present the longest, i.e., the older narrow bench con- 
tour mines. This resulted in the recovery of avian species diversity and composi- 
tion. The authors conclude that biological productivity can be restored to surface- 
mined areas more rapidly through intensive wildlife oriented reclamation techniques. 
With a multilayered vegetative structure, avian successional patterns can be in- 
creased beyond that which would occur using standard reclamation techniques. 

158. Dancer, W. S. Prime Agricultural Land Restoration After Surface Coal Mining 
in Midwestern USA, Chemical and Nutritional Considerations. Paper in Reclamation: A 
Multifaced Activity. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Meeting, Sydney, Nova Scotia, 
Canada, Aug. 19-Sep. 1, 1982. Can. Land Rec. Assoc, Guelph, Ontario, 1982, pp. 207- 
222. 

Nutritional imbalances in field corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) 
Merr.) grown on newly reclaimed land were indicated by the results of plant leaf 
analyses and soil tests used in greenhouse and field experiments. This nutrient im- 
balance is characterized by low concentrations of potassium in plant leaves and by 
high metal concentrations that can become toxic. Ephemeral phosphorus deficiency 
sjnnptoms were observed, probably induced by temporarily high levels of soluble alumi- 
num from rapid initial weathering of overburden. Potassium deficiences were elimi- 
nated in 3 or 4 years with good fertilizer management. This article is extremely 
useful for prime farmland reclamation efforts in the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

159. Dancer, W. S., and I. J. Jansen. Greenhouse Evaluation of Solum and Substra- 
tum Materials in the Southern Illinois Coal Field: I. Forage Crops. J. Environ. 
Qual., V. 10, No. 3, 1981, pp. 396-400. 

The objective of this study was to identify overburden materials that could be used 
in construction of postmining soils. Four bulk soil samples (one each from the top- 
soil Ap, claypan B2, lower B3, and upper C), and lllC Illinoian glacial till) were 
taken from an abandoned highwall located on the Captain Mine in southwestern Perry 
County, IL. The B3 and Ci were combined into one sample because both layers were 
relatively thin. Four different greenhouse experiments were conducted in order to 
compare the growth of three forage crops (perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.), red 
clover ( Trifolium pratense L.), and sudangrass (Sorghum sundanense (Piper) Stapf)) on 
the four different materials. Mixtures of subsoil and overburden were also evaluated 
along with different fertility treatments. The results show that all overburden ma- 
terial responded to lime and fertilizer treatments. Topsoil produced the highest 



95 

yields, but with additions of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and lime to the other 
materials, yield differences were not that great. It was also shown that the C^ ma- 
terials were superior to the native subsoil and should be considered when construct- 
ing postmining soils. The authors conclude that there is evidence that replacement 
or alteration of the claypan subsoil of southern Illinois would increase crop growth 
by enhancing the chemical and physical properties. However, field experiments are 
necessary to support their findings . 

160. Daniels, W. L. , and D. F. Amos. Chemical Characteristics of Some Southwest 
Virginia Minesoils. Paper in 1982 Sjnnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimen- 
tology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1982, pp. 377-380. 

This study was conducted to determine the chemical characteristics, using a number of 
standard techniques, of minesoils located near Norton, VA. The minesoils studied 
ranged in age from 4 to 20 years and were composed of bedded sandstone, siltstone, 
and coalbeds of the Wise Formation. The chemical characteristics of interest were 
organic matter, pH, calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, free iron ox- 
ides, exchangeable acidity, total acidity, base saturation, and cation exchange ca- 
pacity. The effects of coal particle size (1.0-2.0, 0.25-0.5, 0.05-0.10, and <0.05 
mm) on the organic matter content, pH, Ca, Mg, K, exchangeable acidity, total acid- 
ity, and CEC were also determined. The results indicated that the size of the coal 
fragments had little effect on the apparent organic matter content. The fine (<0.05 
mm) particles were reactive, but only to a limited extent. Since the exchangeable Al 
was low in the minesoils studied, the acidity in the soil was controlled by such 
sources as fine coal, organic matter, oxidation of Fe "*"*", and decomposing pyrites. 
Because of this, soils with low pH's coupled with high base saturation were common. 
The techniques used to determine total acidity (pH 8.2 BaCl2-TEA) overestimated the 
acidity in naturally acidic minesoils. This resulted in an overestimate of the ef- 
fective CEC of these soils when the acidity value was used to determine the CEC. 
There were also discrepancies between the two methods used to determine extractable P 
(dilute double-acid and bicarbonate methods). The authors state that great care must 
be taken in the application of standard soil testing techniques to minesoils and in 
the interpretation of the results. 

161. Daniels, W. L., and D. F. Amos. Mapping, Characterization and Genesis of 
Mine Soils on a Reclamation Research Area in Wise County, Virginia. Paper in 1981 
Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 261-266. 

The objectives of this research were to accurately map and characterize the soil, 
identify soil-related factors influencing reclamation success, and evaluate rates and 
processes of soil genesis on spoil materials. Soil characterization was placed in 
category VII even though characterization was done on areas with vegetation already 
present. Information on methodologies used to characterize the minesoil is given. 
It was found that the soil chemical properties are variable from sampling point to 
sampling point. The mapping legend that was used is based on the Virginia USDA Soil 
Conservation Service legend. Due to the extreme variability of the soil material, 22 
different mapping units were delineated. By the time the soil was 20 years old, deep 
A horizons and weak cambic B horizons had developed. Approximately half of the soils 
described had a compacted layer (1.8 g/cm^) within 70 cm of the surface. These lay- 
ers limit vegetative growth and soil genesis. The authors conclude that pedogenic 
horizons do develop on minesoils and should be described by conventional soil taxo- 
nomic methods. 

162. Daniels, W. L. , J. C. Bell, D. F. Amos, and G. D. McCart. First Year Effects 
of Rock Type and Surface Treatments on Mine Soil Properties and Plant Growth. Paper 



96 

in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lex- 
ington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 275-282. 

This study evaluated the effects of rock type and surface treatments of topsoil, 
sawdust, and sewage sludge on the revegetation of southwestern Virginia coal mines. 
The rock mixes evaluated were pure sandstone (SS), pure siltstone (SIS), 2:1 SS:SiS, 
1:1 SS:SiS, and 1:2 SS:SiS. For the establishment and production of Ky-31 tall fes- 
cue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) a mixture that is >1:1 SS:SiS appears to be supe- 
rior. Fescue establishment and growth were inhibited by high-siltstone spoils. In- 
hibition was due to rockiness, low water holding capacity, high pH, and the soluble 
salts present in the siltstone strata. The surface treatment experiments were con- 
structed using a 2:1 SS:SiS mix, and the following treatments were used: (1) a fer- 
tilized control (120 kg/ha 15-30-15), (2) a topsoil plus lime (7.8 mg/ha) plus fer- 
tilizer (1,120 kg/ha 15-30-15), (3) sawdust (112 mg/ha) plus fertilizer (1,120 kg/ha 
15-30-15 and 336 kg/ha slow release N) , (4) sewage sludge (22.4 mg/ha), (5) sewage 
sludge (56 mg/ha), (6) sewage sluge (112 mg/ha), and (7) sewage sludge (224 mg/ha). 
Fescue yield was found to be the same on control, topsoiled, and limed plots. Plots 
receiving 56 mg/ha sewage sludge or greater outyielded all other surface treatments 
and were the only plots with sufficient phosphorus. Sewage sludge was also superior 
to sawdust as an organic amendment because the plots receiving sawdust were deficient 
in nitrogen due to nitrogen immobilization. The authors conclude that careful over- 
burden selection and placement, along with the proper surface treatment, can create a 
hard-rock-derived mine soil that is superior to locally occurring natural soils. 

163. Danielson, R. M. , J. Zak, and D. Parkinson. Plant Growth and Mycorrhizal 
Development in Amended Coal Spoil Material. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource De- 
velopment, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, 
Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 912-919. 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of inorganic and organic amend- 
ments of coal mine spoil on the growth of a variety of plants and the development of 
endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae on these plants. Plant species used in this 
study included white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss), willow ( Salx glauca L.), 
slender wheatgrass ( Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte.) and alsike clover ( Trifo- 
lium hybridum L.). The treatments tested included none; a 14-cm layer of fibrous 
peat; mineral fertilizer equivalent to 113 kg/ha N, 113 kg/ha P205» ^nd 91 kg/ha K2O; 
and anaerobically digested liquid sewage sludge applied at a rate of 243 1/m^. Ap- 
plication of mineral fertilizer or sewage sludge resulted in substantial first-year 
growth response for willow, slender wheatgrass, and alsike clover. Ectomycorrhizae 
were absent on spruce in the sewage-treated spoil. Sewage sludge adversely affected 
the rate of endomycorrhizal infection in both slender wheatgrass and alsike clover. 
For both plant species fertilizer produced the largest lengths of roots containing 
vesicles of endomycorrhizae. This article is a good reference for individuals inter- 
ested in ecological aspects of surface mineland revegetation. This research was con- 
ducted in Canada; however, the results and/or the methods described could find appli- 
cation throughout the United States. 

164. D'Antuono, J. R. Some Aspects of Natural Vegetation Establishment on Aban- 
doned Underground Coal Mine Refuse Areas in Illinois. IL Inst. Nat. Res. Doc. 79/18, 
June 1979, 84 pp. 

The author reports the results of a study designed to characterize abandoned under- 
ground coal mine refuse disposal sites in Illinois. These sites were categorized as 
(1) well vegetated or (2) sparsely vegetated and/or barren. The revegetation occur- 
ring at both types of sites was the result of natural processes. The sites were 
characterized, and selected physical and chemical parameters of the spoil material 
were related to the occurrence of vegetation. Feasible reclamation procedures or 



97 

alternatives to classical reclamation practices were evaluated. This publication of- 
fers an excellent review of the pertinent literature and extensive vegetation, soil 
characterization, and statistical data that could be of use for comparisons and in 
planning revegetation programs . 

165. Darby, S. P. A Look at Trees and Reclamation in Georgia. Paper in Trees for 
Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE- 
61, 1980, pp. 11-14. 

Two loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) plantations, established by two different compa- 
nies were compared in order to assess the silvicultural techniques used to establish 
the plantations and the reclamation requirements when rehabilitating mine lands in 
Georgia. The techniques used to establish the plantations were different. For exam- 
ple, vegetative ground cover was established prior to planting by company B, but not 
A; subsoiling was used by company B, but not A; fertilization was used by company B 
at planting, but not A. After 11 years the average diameter at breast height (Dbh) 
and height for plantation A were 6 in and 31 ft, respectively. After 8 years the 
average Dbh and height for plantation B were 5 in and 28 ft, respectively. These 
comparisons raised several important issues that, if resolved, could result in in- 
creased tree planting and lower land reclamation costs. 

166. Darling, A. P., and S. A. Young. The Effects of Native Hay Mulch on Soil 
Stabilization and Introduction of Native Species on Strip Mined Lands in Southeastern 
Montana. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclama- 
tion on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Rec. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. 
OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 296- 
306. 

This paper describes a study conducted on direct haul topsoiled mine spoils near Col- 
strip, MT, to evaluate the use of native hay mulch for soil stabilization and estab- 
lishment of native species on coal strip-mined lands. A factorial combination of two 
variables was tested: mulching using native hay and wheat straw, and seeding with a 
native seed mix. Soil erosion and vegetation density, cover, and biomass were evalu- 
ated. Native hay was found to be at least as effective as wheat straw in reducing 
erosion, and, depending upon its seed content, perhaps more effective. Native hay 
mulch may be used to successfully introduce needle grass ( Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr.) 
It was shown that, compared to nonmulched sites, both straw arid native hay mulch can 
improve plant community diversity, evenness, and floristic richness by introducing 
additional species. Undesirable species introduced by native hay may limit the 
growth of seeded species. Consequently, it is recommended that hay free from seeds 
of aggressive weedy species should be used to optimize the establishment of desirable 
species. The results of this study are applicable to revegetation efforts on re- 
claimed mineland throughout the Northern Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain Coal 
Mining Regions. 

167. Davidson, W. H. Hybrid Poplar Cutting Production and Plantation Establish- 
ment. U.S. For. Ser. State and Private Forestry, NE Area, NA-FB/M-6, Rectec, No. 3, 
1981, 2 pp. 

The author discusses the establishment of hybrid poplar ( Populus spp.) on surface 
mined land in the Eastern United States. Information is presented on site prepara- 
tion, soil amendments, establishment procedures and spacing of hybrid poplar plant- 
ings, and maintenance of the stand. The author states that after 8 to 10 years the 
entire plantation shall be ready for firewood or pulpwood cuttings with trees having 
a Dbh ranging from 6 to 8 in. An alternative to complete harvesting would be to 
leave approximately 100 trees per acre for saw log production. 

168. Davidson, W. H. Hybrid Poplar Pulpwood and Lumber From a Reclaimed Strip- 
Mine. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Note NE-282, 1979, 2 pp. 



98 

The author presents the yields obtained from a 2-acre hybrid poplar (Populus spp.) 
plantation harvested at the age of 16 years. Initially the site had been planted 
with a mixture of hybrid poplar, white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss), and 
Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.). However, the hybrid poplar overtopped the slower 
growing conifers, resulting in a hybrid poplar plantation with a conifer under story. 
The commercial clearcut of the 2-acre hybrid poplar plantation resulted in a yield of 
90 tons of pulpwood and 9,400 board feet of lumber. Cord volume was not determined 
but was estimated to be 33 cords per acre. This equals a growth rate of approximate- 
ly 2 cords per acre per year. A table is presented which compares selected physical 
properties of hybrid poplar with those of other commercial eastern species. The 
author states that the harvest of commercial ical size pulp and saw logs from a re- 
claimed strip-mine site indicates that previously mined lands can be returned to a 
productive use. 

169. Davidson, W. H. Performance of^ Ponderosa Pine on Bituminous Mine Spoils in 
Pennsylvania. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Paper NE-358, 1977, 6 pp. 

The author discusses the results of a 6 year field trial for the feasibility of es- 
tablishing ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa Dougl ex P. & C. Laws) on bituminous mine 
spoils in Pennsylvania. Seedlings from numerous ponderosa pine provinces were used. 
The author concludes that selected sources of ponderosa pine can be planted on bitu- 
minous strip-mine spoils in Pennsylvania. 

170. Davidson, W. H. Results of Tree and Shrub Plantings on Low pH Strip-Mine 
Banks. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Note NE-285, 1979, 5 pp. 

The author presents the 11-year results of a study conducted to evaluate the survival 
and growth of 16 species of trees and shrubs established on 10 acid strip mines in 
the bituminous region of Pennsylvania. Species used in the evaluation included five 
species of European alder ( Alnus spp.), four birch species (Betula spp.), black lo- 
cust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis L.), Scotch pine 
( Pinus sylvestris L.), autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), sawtooth oak ( Quer- 
cus acutissima Carruth.), and Japanese fleecef lower ( Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & 
Zucc). First-year results indicated that mortality was very high; mortality by 
species ranged from 48 to 94 pet. After 11 years two birches, gray birch (Betula 
populifolia Marsh.) and European white birch ( Betula pendula Roth .), had the highest 
survival rates and best growth of all the species tested. These species had survival 
rates of 50 pet or better at 8 of the 10 sites. Other species that performed well on 
a few of the sites were European alder from a German seed source and Scotch pine. 
The author recommends that the birch species be used for reforestation of Pennsylva- 
nia bituminous spoils when the pH is 3.5 or higher. 

171. Davidson, W. H. Rooting Characteristics of Topsoiled Surface Mines. Paper 
in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lex- 
ington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 267-270. 

Evaluations of five reclaimed surface mines in the bituminous region of Pennsylvania 
were made to determine the effectiveness of replacing topsoil as a technique to en- 
hance the establishment of herbaceous plants. A total of 390 random sampling points 
were chosen, and percent ground cover, root penetration, and topsoil depth were 
examined at each point. Soil samples were also collected in order to determine se- 
lected soil chemical properties for each site. The results indicate that herbaceous 
species can be successfully established on topsoiled surface mines. However, root 
growth is primarily dependent on topsoil depth. Soil chemical analysis of the sites 
indicates that there is large variation in soil chemical properties between the five 
sites. 

172. Davidson, W. H. Timber Volumes of Old Pennsylvania Surface Mine Reclamation 
Plantations. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Note NE-303, 1981, 5 pp. 



99 

This study was conducted to evaluate 19 tree plantations established by the Morris 
Run Coal Mining Co. from 1919 to 1938 in Tioga County, PA. A point-sampling sys- 
tem was used to inventory the planting sites. Measurements and observations were 
made at each site in order to determine (1) the volume per acre of planted species, 
(2) volunteer vegetation present, (3) volume per acre of volunteer species, and 
(4) soil development with each plantation. Of the planted species, jack pine, (Pinus 
banksiana Lamb.) had the highest volume, 10,567 board feet per acre. Total volume of 
all planted conifers was 744,000 board feet on the 19 plantations studied. Black 
cherry ( Prunus serotina Ehrh.) was the most common of the volunteer hardwood species. 
Total volume of hardwood species on the area was 356,000 board feet, with black 
cherry averaging 1,606 board feet per acre. Examinations of the soil profile in each 
plantation revealed the development of a litter layer and A and B horizons. This 
evaluation clearly demonstrates the potential of surface mine spoil as a forest site. 

173. Davidson, W. H. , and E. A. Sowa. Conifers Growing on Anthracite Minesoils 
Respond to Fertilization. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sed- 
imentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1982, pp. 115-118. 

Two separate studies were conducted on Pennsylvania anthracite minesoils to evaluate 
the growth response of established conifers to slow-release and granular fertiliza- 
tion. In the first study 6 plantations ranging in age from 3 to 8 year were used. 
At each site, every other tree in a row received one fertilizer tablet per 30 cm of 
average height. Agriform planting tablets (21 g) were used and had an analysis of 
20-15-5. The tablets were placed in a hole 10 to 15 cm deep. Over the 4 years of 
the study, all fertilized trees showed a positive response to fertilizer tablets ex- 
cept for white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss). Japanese larch ( Larix leptolepis 
(Sieb. fit Zucc.) Cord.) responded the first year while red pine ( Pinus resinosa Ait) , 
white pine ( Pinus strobus L.), and Austrian pine ( Pinus nigra Arnold) did not respond 
until the second year after treatment. These responses lasted for a 2-year period. 
By the end of the fourth year there were no significant differences between fertil- 
ized and nonfertilized trees except for one site on coal breaker refuse where Aus- 
trian pine had a significant growth response to fertilization over the 4 years of the 
study. In the second study a plantation of Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) and red 
pine were treated as follows: (1) 100 kg/ha N and 90 kg /ha P, (2) 100 kg/ha N and 
180 kg/ha P, and (3) a control. There were no growth responses to granular fertil- 
ization until the third year, and even then the response was short lived. Only red 
pine responded to both P fertility rates. The authors conclude that the growth rates 
of most conifers on anthracite minesoils can be increased by fertilization. The fer- 
tilizer tablets produced a growth response more quickly than granular fertilizers and 
the response was longer lasting. 

174. Davidson, W. H. , and W. G. Vogel. Hybrid Poplar for Reclamation. Paper in 
Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal 
Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, 
June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 99-109. 

This article provides a brief literature review of the use of hybrid poplar ( Populus 
spp.) for mlnesoil reclamation. Much of the literature and results reviewed in this 
article are from research conducted by the U.S. Forest Service in the Eastern Coal 
Mining Region. Included in the article is a list of hybrid poplar clones that have 
been reported as performing well, their lineage, and the area where research on the 
clones was conducted. This article provides a good reference for this subject and is 
pertinent to potential land use considerations and to planning reclamation. The por- 
tion of the research reviewed is specific to the Eastern Coal Mining Region. Howev- 
er, with prudent consideration the information may be applicable to much of the Inte- 
rior Region as well. 



100 

175. Dawson, J. 0., T. W. Christensen, and R. G. Timmons. Modulation of Alnus 
Glutinosa Seeded in Soil From Different Topographic Positions on a Spoil Bank: A 
Preliminary Report. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees 
(Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, 
pp. 133-137. 

European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) tolerates a wide range of spoil 
pH's and it fixes nitrogen symbiotically with actinomycetes of the genus Frankia . 
For these reasons, it is widely planted on minespoils in the Eastern United States. 
This article summarizes the results of a greenhouse study conducted to determine if 
minesoils taken from different topographic positions on a spoil pile differed in 
their capacity to infect European black alder. Samples of minesoil were taken from 
six positions on a south-facing spoil bank in Vermillion County, IL, that had been 
mined 16 years before sampling. Each sample was put in a separate pot with 175 
seeds. After 10 weeks in the greenhouse, counts of live seedlings and nodules on 
their roots were made. Results showed that mine soils from level terrace positions 
were much more infective than minesoils from the slope of the spoil bank. 

176. Day, A. D. , and K. L. Ludeke. Reclamation of Copper Mine Wastes With Shrubs 
in the Southwestern U.S.A. J. Arid Environ., v. 3, 1980, pp. 107-112. 

This article reports the results of a study that examined the effects of desert soil, 
copper overburden, overburden plus copper mine tailings, and tailings on the germi- 
nation, seedling establishment and growth of five shrub species. The study was con- 
ducted at the Cyprus Pima Mining Company copper mine near Tucson, AZ. A "sidewinder" 
and a "sheepfoot roller" were used to prepare the seedbed on each soil material. The 
five shrub species included fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh.) Nutt.), 
quailbush ( Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) Wats.), Australian saltbush ( Atriplex semi- 
baccata R. Br.), creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata (DC.) Gov.), and desertbroom ( Bac- 
charis saraothroides Gray). The desert soil was more productive, followed by over- 
burden, overburden plus tailings, and tailings in decreasing order of productivity. 
Second-year growth produced taller plants, more vegetation, and more ground cover for 
all species tested. This article specifically addresses revegetation of copper mines 
in Arizona. However, much of the results and discussion are applicable to surface 
mineland revegetation throughout a large portion of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Region. 

177. Day, A. D. , and K. L. Ludeke. Stabilization of Copper Mine Wastes in a Semi- 
Arid Environment With Perennial Grasses. J. Arid Environ., v. 5, No. 7, 1982, 
pp. 285-290. 

This study examines the effects of desert soil, copper mine overburden, overburden 
plus copper mine tailings, and tailings on the germination, seedling establishment, 
and growth of six perennial grass species. The study was conducted at the Cyprus 
Pima Mining Co. mine in Arizona. The six grass species included perennial ryegrass 
( Lolium perenne L.), crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), Lehmann 
lovegrass ( Eragrostis lehmanniana Nees) , weeping lovegrass ( Eragrostis curvula 
(Schrad.) Nees), Wilman lovegrass ( Eragrostis superba Peyr.), and blue panicgrass 
( Paniculum antidotale Retz). The desert soil was found to be more productive, fol- 
lowed by overburden, overburden plus tailings, and tailings in decreasing order of 
productivity. Second-year growth produced taller plants, more vegetation, and more 
ground cover for all of the species tested. This article specifically addresses re- 
vegetation of copper mines in Arizona. However, the results are applicable to sur- 
face mineland revegetation through a large portion of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Region. 

178. Day, A. D., K. L. Ludeke, G. 0. Amaugo, and T. C. Tucker. Copper Mine 
Wastes: Good Potential as Medium for Growing Livestock Forage. Ch. in Engineering 



101 

and Mining Journal Operating Handbook of Mineral Surface Mining and Exploration, ed. 
by R. Hoppe. McGraw-Hill, v. 2, 1978, pp. 128-129. 

The purpose of this study was to compare the growth and the fiber, protein, and amino 
acid contents of barley forage ( Hordeum vuglare L.) grown on soil materials in cop- 
per mine wastes in Arizona. The four soil materials used were tailings, tailings- 
overburden, overburden, and desert soil. The results presented in this paper are 
qualitative; no quantitative data are given. The greatest height growth and largest 
amount of tillers permit area for barley forage was obtained on the desert soil, fol- 
lowed by overburden, overburden-tailings , and pure tailings. The fiber content and 
protein content of barley forage was similar for the desert, overburden, and tailings 
material. However, a mixture of tailings and overburden had less fiber and more 
protein. This indicates a higher nutritional value for livestock feed on a mixture 
of tailings and overburden than on the other three soil materials. There are also 
differences in the amounts of certain amino acids present in the plant material grown 
on the four soil materials. These differences in amino acid concentration may be ex- 
plained by the differences in the availability of nutrients to barley plants from the 
soil materials studied. The authors conclude that with improved cultural practices 
barley forage grown on copper mine wastes may produce high yields of quality forage 
for livestor'. feed. 

179. Day, A. D. , T. C. Tucker , and J. L. Thames. Response of Plant Species to 
Coal-Mine S>. ' Is Materials. Miner. Environ., Mar. 1983, pp. 10-14. 

The growth and establishment of seven plant species in undisturbed soil and coal mine 
soil (spoil) was investigated in this 2-yr study conducted on the Black Mesa coal 
mine near Kayenta, AZ. Natural rainfall (20 cm/yr) and rainfall plus sprinkler irri- 
gation (50 cm/yr) were the irrigation treatments applied to each soil material. Bet- 
ter plant growth was obtained on undisturbed soil. Supplemental irrigation resulted 
in improved plant growth on both soil materials. When supplemental irrigation was 
applied, effective ground cover was produced on both soil materials with Alfalfa 
( Medicago sativa L.) and all of the native grasses used, except Indian ricegrass 
( Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem & Schult.) Ricker) . During the first year of growth, 
fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh.) Nutt.) had low germination, seedling 
establishment, and stem production. During the second year of growth this species 
produced a dense ground cover on coal mine soil when supplemental irrigation water 
was applied. Harlan II barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) and Super X wheat ( Triticum 
aestivum L.) were used to provide initial protective cover until the perennial spe- 
cies could be permanently established. The results of this study indicate that sup- 
plemental irrigation is essential during seedling establishment for effective revege- 
tation of coalmine soils in a semiarid environment. The results of this study may 
also be applicable to portions of the Northern Great Plains and Pacific Coal Mining 
Regions. 

180. Day, A. D. , T. C. Tucker, and J. L. Thames. Russian Thistle for Soil Mulch 
in Coal Mine Reclamation. Reclam. Rev., v. 2, No. 1, 1979, pp. 39-42. 

Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to compare Russian thistle mulch (Salsola 
kali L. var. tenuifolia Tausch .) with barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) straw mulch in re- 
ducing soil-moisture loss from a coal mine spoil and two unmined soils. The coal 
mine spoil material was collected from the Black Mesa coal mine near Kayenta, AZ. 
Each of the soils was observed using the Russian thistle mulch, barley straw mulch, 
or no mulch. Mulches were mixed with the soil at a ratio of two parts soil to one 
part mulch. The two greenhouse environments utilized in this study were (1) 27° C 
and 5 pet relative humidity, and (2) 21° C and 75 pet relative humidity. Soil mois- 
ture loss was calculated as a percentage of the initial 50 ml of water added to the 
soil. Barley straw and Russian thistle mulches significantly reduced soil moisture 



102 

loss from soil materials studied in both environments. Soil moisture loss was lower 
in environment 2 than environment 1 for all soils, but the moisture loss patterns 
were similar in both environments. The authors concluded that Russian thistle is as 
effective as barley straw as a soil mulch, in reducing soil moisture loss from the 
three soils studied. 

181. DeBuys, W. E. Jr., and R. W. Doughty. Future Landscapes of the Colorado Pla- 
teau: Impacts of Energy Development. Univ. TX Center for Energy Studies (Austin, 
TX), Policy Study No. 19, July 1982, 122 pp. 

This publication is a good general treatment of the changes taking place in the "Four 
Corners" area of the Colorado Plateau, comprised of the adjoining areas of Arizona, 
Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. Included are discussions of energy future, reclama- 
tion, wildlife, water, air quality, human environment and landscaping. The two chap- 
ters on reclamation and wildlife are covered here. Although no details are given, 
chapter 3 is a good general treatment of reclamation regulations and problems associ- 
ated with revegetation of the "Four Corners" area. The site-specific nature of each 
mine is discussed as well as reference areas, climatic conditions, species success, 
and establishment procedures. Reclamation is described as "the return of the biotic 
community to a stable, productive state that does not require continued maintenance 
by human beings." The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act further specifies 
that reclaimed lands should be compatible aesthetically with surrounding lands while 
posing no threat to the stability and productivity of the environment. In chapter 4 
the authors point out that, in some cases, revegetation of some areas may increase 
the ability of the land to support native wildlife, although the return of wildlife 
to its former level is likely to take many decades. 

182. Demchak, K. , R. D. Morse, D. D. Wolf, and J. L. Neal. Phosphorus Availabil- 
ity of Minesoils as Influenced by Phosphorus and Lime Rates and Organic Residues. 
Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 423-429. 

Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) were 
established on a surface mine site in Wise County, VA, to evaluate the long-term ef- 
fects of different rates of applied fertilizer and lime and various sources of in- 
corporated organic residues on plant growth, tissue P content, and extractable soil 
P. Phosphorus fertilization rates were determined by the isotherm method, and the 
amounts needed to establish the mine soil solution P levels at 0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 
and 0.2 ppm were applied. The organic amendments used were high lime and wood fines 
(passed through a 0.6-cm mesh), lime and papermill sludge, and lime and composted 
sewage sludge. Based on 1 year of data, improvements in P availability can be 
acheived by adding lime with either sewage sludge or phosphate fertilizer. However, 
lime alone did not significantly increase yields. Adding P without lime also failed 
to maximize yields even though yields increased as the soil solution P content was 
increased. The optimum initial soil solution P level for red clover and tall fescue 
was between and 0.025 ppm. Sewage sludge produced excellent first-year yields, 
even without supplemental P. Sewage sludge could be an excellent amendment for im- 
proving the long-term availability of P on minesoils if mineralization keeps pace 
with P demands. The potential for papermill sludge and wood fines to directly supply 
P is not sufficient to maintain adequate growth on minesoils. Across all treatments, 
the total yield obtained was highly correlated with tissue P concentrations. Of the 
soil tests that were compared (Bray I, sodium bicarbonate, and dilute double acid) 
for extractable P, the sodium bicarbonate test had the highest correlation with yield 
and tissue P concentration across all treatments. 

183. DePuit, E. J. Potential Topsoiling Strategies for Enhancement of Vegeta- 
tion Diversity on Mined Lands. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal 
Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT 



103 

State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. 
OSM, 1984, pp. 258-272. 

The author discusses topsoiling strategies that have either proven or have potential 
utility for enhancement of vegetation diversity on mined lands. Both intraplant and 
interplant community diversity is addressed. The discussion is based on a review of 
available literature and conjecture by the author. Specific practices and principles 
discussed include direct place topsoiling, supplemental top-dressing, multiple lift 
topsoiling, topsoil management, topsoil depth, and selective soil handling. This 
paper is an excellent reference on this topic. The discussion tends to be specific 
for the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining region; however, the concepts should be 
applicable throughout much of the Western United States. 

184. DePuit, E. J. Recent Progress in Mined Land Revegetation Research in Mon- 
tana. Paper in Symposi\mi on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 
26-27, 1980). Soil Con. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 19-1 to 19-23. 

The author presents a brief description of the history and scope of past mined land 
revegetation research in Montana, summarizes recent and current revegetation research 
being conducted in Montana, and presents a bibliography of coal mined land revegeta- 
tion studies produced by Montana-based research. Results and/or conclusions from re- 
cent or current research specific to native species establishment, irrigation, fer- 
tilization, and grazing managment are presented and discussed. 

185. DePuit, E. J., and J. G. Coenenberg. Methods for Establishment of Native 
Plant Communities on Topsoiled Coal Stripmine Spoils in the Northern Great Plains. 
Reclam. Rev., v. 2, No. 2, 1979, pp. 75-87. 

This study evaluated seeding method (drill versus broadcast) , number of species in a 
seeded mix, and rate of seeding on a topsoiled coal stripmine near Colstrip in south- 
eastern Montana. Broadcast seeding was found to be superior in terms of productiv- 
ity, stand composition, and diversity if the seeding rates were twice that of drill 
seeding. If equal seeding rates were used, drill seeding was superior to broadcast 
seeding in terms of perennial grass productivity. However, broadcast seeding at 
equal rates with drill seeding still resulted in a higher stand diversity and devel- 
opment of smaller seeded species. By increasing the numbers of species in a seed 
mix, community diversity increased without having a detrimental effect on productiv- 
ity. This indicates the value that a broad seeding mixture has on both diversity and 
productivity. Heavy seeding rates (42, 56, and 84 kg/ha, PLS) were evaluated and 
generally yielded good stands of vegetation in terms of productivity, native species 
dominance, and diversity. However, above 56 kg/ha there was a reduction in perennial 
grass productivity. Stand diversity also declined when seeding rates were increased. 
It may be necessary, however, to use the higher seeding rates to ensure rapid vegeta- 
tive stabilization on semiarid mined lands. 

186. DePuit, E. J., J. G. Coenenberg, and W. H. Willmuth. Research on Revegeta- 
tion of Surface Mined Lands at Colstrip, Montana: Progress Report, 1975-1977. MT 
Agr. Exp. Sta. MT State Univ., Bozeman, MT, Res. Rep. 127, Aug. 1978, 165 pp. 

This report describes progress on a number of revegetation research projects con- 
ducted by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station at the Western Energy Co. 
Rosebud Mine at Colstrip, MT, from 1975 to 1977. The major phase of reclamation ad- 
dressed by this report is the revegetation of mine spoils. The results of each study 
are presented, with particular emphasis on the amounts of fertilizer applied, the 
species and seeding rates used, and the resulting cover and biomass produced. 

187. DePuit, E. J., C. L. Skilbred, and J. G. Coenenberg. Effects of Two Years of 
Irrigation on Revegetation of Coal Surface-Mined Land in Southeastern Montana. J. 
Range Manag. , v. 35, No. 1, 1982, pp. 67-74. 



104 

This report summarizes the data obtained on the responses of seeded vegetation to 
2 years of summer irrigation on a topsoiled sodic site at the West Decker coal mine 
in southeastern Montana. A sprinkler irrigation system was used for the application 
of supplemental water. The objectives of this study were (1) to evaluate the effects 
of supplemental irrigation on vegetation establishment, structure, composition, di- 
versity, and productivity, and (2) to define the effects of irrigation on root bio- 
mass and distribution. One year of supplemental irrigation significantly stimulated 
the productivity of seeded perennial grasses, increased warm-season perennial grass 
development, and increased stand diversity. Species that were significantly stimu- 
lated by 1 year of irrigation were thickspike wheatgrass (Agropyron dasystachyum 
(Hook.) Scribn.), slender wheatgrass ( Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte.) , smooth 
bromegrass ( Bromus inermis Leyss.), and blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) 
Lag.). Total stand productivity after 1 year was similar for irrigated and nonirri- 
gated plots; the first year was characterized by above-average precipitation. First- 
year irrigation also decreased the productivity of annual weed species . The second 
year of irrigation, a drier year, resulted in a total irrigated stand productivity 
that was three times higher than that of nonirrigated plots. Plant species stimu- 
lated by 2 years of irrigation were all cool season species and included slender 
wheatgrass, western wheatgrass ( Agropyron smithii Rydb.), smooth bromegrass, and yel- 
low sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.). The growth of warm season species 
was retarded by 2 years of irrigation, with more shallow root systems and lower be- 
lowground to aboveground biomass ratios than for nonirrigated areas. Total root bio- 
mass was significantly higher in nonirrigated plots than in irrigated plots. 

188. Derby, G. K. , and R. D. Perry. Economic Considerations of Reclaiming Aban- 
doned Tailings Ponds and Dams. Paper in Conference on the Economics of Mined-Land 
Reclamation (Chicago, IL, Sept. 1, 1981). NTIS, PC A12/MF AOl, 1981, pp. 243-257. 

The authors discuss methodologies that can be used to develop reclamation plans spe- 
cific to an abandoned or inactive mine tailings deposit. Two representative case 
studies, one from the Southwestern United States and the other from the Northwestern 
United States, are Included as examples. For each example, semidetailed reclamation 
plans were developed and contain Information on methods, procedures, and cost esti- 
mates to reclaim each site. The authors feel that a basic reclamation plan cannot be 
developed to cover all the circumstances involved in reclamation costs and that rec- 
lamation requirements are site specific and engineering studies and comprehensive 
plans should be developed on an individual basis. 

189. Deuth, M. J. Comparative Reclamation Practices of Surface Coal Mines in 
Wyoming and Texas. Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol. , v. 15, No. 2, Spring 1978, pp. 231-251. 

The reclamation schemes of three mines are described in this article. The Big Brown- 
Fairfield lignite mine in eastern Texas and the Dave Johnston and Big Horn Mines in 
Wyoming's Powder River Basin are compared, and differences in reclaiming them are 
noted. Brief descriptions of State reclamation laws and methods of revegetating 
mined areas are given. 

190. Dewar, S. W. , and E. R. Berglund. First-Year Survival and Growth of Willow 
and Poplar Cuttings on Taconite Tailings in Minnesota. Paper in 1983 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27- 
Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 141-147. 

This study evaluated the effectiveness of crack willow ( Salix fragilis L.) and balsam 
poplar ( Populus balsamifera L.) cuttings for afforestation of a taconite tailings 
basin near Keewatin, MN. Survival and growth responses were measured according to 
tailing texture and fertilization treatments. The fertilizer treatments used were 
(1) a control — no fertilizer, (2) surface application of 150 lb/acre of 46-0-0 and 
150 lb/acre of 0-46-0, and (3) a roto-tilled-f ertilizer treatment using the same 



105 

fertilizer application rate as in (2). The overall survival of crack willow (94 pet) 
was not significantly affected by either texture or fertilization treatments. How- 
ever, average growth of crack willow was significantly greater on roto-tilled fertil- 
ized and surface fertilized plots than on control plots. The overall survival of 
balsam poplar (30 pet) was significantly lower than that of crack willow. Growth of 
balsam poplar was significantly affected by texture; as the tailings material became 
coarser, the average growth decreased. Fertilization was found to have no effect on 
the growth of balsam poplar. The results of this study indicate that crack willow 
cuttings have a higher survival and higher growth response to fertilization and are 
more promising than balsam poplar for establishing woody vegetation on taconite 
tailings. 

191. Dickson, K. L. , and D. Vance. Revegetating Surface Mined Lands for Wildlife 
in Texas and Oklahoma (U.S. FWS contract FWS 14-16-009-80-045, Inst. Appl. Sci. and 
Dep. of Biol. Sci., N. TX State Univ.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser., FWS/OBS081/25, 
Aug. 1981, 120 pp. 

This publication is designed as a guide for reclaiming surface-coal-mined lands in 
Texas and Oklahoma. Guidance is provided for the development and implementation of 
revegetation plans that will create a diversity of habitats capable of attracting and 
supporting wildlife. Possible considerations of wildlife habitat where agricultural 
production is the primary goal in postmining land use are also presented. Excellent 
vegetation information, including planting spacing, planting dates, adaptability, 
wildlife value, and seed or plant stock sources, is provided for numerous species. 
The publication is primarily aimed at surface mineland reclamation in the southwest- 
ern portion of the Interior and the western portion of the Gulf Coast Coal Mining 
Regions . 

192. Dittberner, P. L. , and G. Bryant. The Use of the Plant Information Network 
(PIN) In High Altitude Revegetation. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
v. 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, 
ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 1022-1034. 

This paper describes the Plant Information Network (PIN) , which is a computer-based 
data bank for rapid retrieval and organization of information on the native and 
naturalized vascular plants in Colorado, Montana, and Wyoming. The paper provides 
some historical background for the development of PIN, describes specific features 
of the program, and explains, through example, how to access vegetation information 
through the program. This paper will be of interest to those working in planning re- 
vegetation activities in portions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain 
Coal Mining Regions . 

193. Dixon, J. B. , H. S. Arora, F. M. Hons, P. E. Askenasy, and L. R. Hossner. 
Chemical, Physical, and Mineralogical Properties of Soils, Mine Spoil, and Overburden 
Associated with Lignite Mining. Ch. 2 in Reclamation of Surface-Mined Lignite Spoil 
in Texas, ed. by L. R. Hossner. TX A & M Univ. Syst., Rep. RM-10, 1980, pp. 12-21. 

The authors briefly summarize the physical and chemical properties of unmined soils, 
mine spoil, and selected overburden strata from Freestone and Milam Counties, TX. 
Mine spoil has a more favorable texture than unmined soils , although it does form 
crusts which can reduce seedling emergence and oxygen diffusion. The spoil is defi- 
cient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter, all of which can be corrected with 
proper fertilization. This is a good article on soils properties of the Texas lig- 
nite mining areas. 

194. Dixon, R. M. Land Imprinting Activities. Paper in Vegetative Rehabilitation 
and Equipment Workshop, 36th Annual Report (Denver, CO, Feb. 4-5, 1982). U.S. For. 
Serv. Equipment Devel. Cent., Missoula, MT, 1982, 20 pp. 



106 

This general article discusses the positive effects that land imprinting has on rain- 
water infiltration and funneling. For example, rainwater infiltration can be con- 
trolled by manipulating surface macroporosity and microroughness. The standard de- 
sign of the new box-type land imprinter is also given. 

195. Doerr, T. B., and E. F. Redente. Seeded Plant Community Changes on Inten- 
sively Disturbed Soils as Affected by Cultural Practices. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, 
No. 1, 1983, pp. 13-24. 

This study examined the effects of irrigation, fertilization, seed mixture, seeding 
method, and interactions on successional trends of seeded grass and forb species on 
intensively disturbed sites near Rifle, CO. The site was disturbed by removing, mix- 
ing, and replacing the A, B, and C soil horizons. Initially, fertilization and irri- 
gation increased grass production, but after 4 years there was no increase in above- 
ground production due to either treatment. Irrigation favored forb production during 
the first 2 years, but fertilization reduced forb biomass during the entire time the 
study was conducted. The aboveground biomass of native and introduced species were 
significantly different for only 1 year. After that time little difference in bio- 
mass production was found. However, forb production was found to be greatest when 
introduced species were used. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) was the species that con- 
tributed the most to the difference found between introduced and native forbs. 
Aboveground biomass of the grass species was not significantly affected by seeding 
method (drill versus broadcast) . Forb biomass was generally greater on broadcast- 
seeded plots when compared to drill-seeded plots. The conclusions drawn by the au- 
thors were (1) depending on land use and importance of soil stabilization, irrigation 
and fertilization may or may not be useful methods for vegetation establishment, 
(2) there are no apparent reasons for not using adapted introduced species for reveg- 
etation at appropriate rates, and (3) broadcastseeding was as effective in establish- 
ing diverse and productive stands as drill seeding. 

196. Doll, E. C. , N. C. Wollenhaupt, G. A. Halvorson, and S. A. Schroeder. Plan- 
ning and Evaluating Cropland Reclamation After Stripmining in North Dakota. Paper in 
the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great 
Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, 
MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 88-101. 

The authors offer an excellent review of pertinent literature and personal experience 
related to planning and evaluating cropland reclamation following stripmining in 
North Dakota. The authors stress that reclamation planning based upon duplication of 
premine conditions is not always the most efficient and cost-effective way to utilize 
the available soil and overburden materials. The topics discussed in the paper in- 
clude the importance of topography, soil and overburden characterization, premine 
land use, soil replacement, and prime soil reclamation and its evaluation. While it 
was written with specific reference to North Dakota, many of the concepts conveyed 
may be relevant to reclamation of prime farmland in other coal mining areas as well. 

197. Dollhopf, D. J., and E. J. DePuit. Chemical Amendment and Irrigation Effects 
on Sodium Migration and Vegetation Characteristics in Sodic Mine Soils in the North- 
ern Great Plains. Paper in 1981 Sjrmposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimen- 
tology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1981, pp. 481-485. 

The purpose of this article was to determine the causes of topsoil sodication in 
Montana and to develop methods that would reduce sodication in order to establish 
diverse vegetation for grazing purposes. Spoil physical properties such as particle 
size distribution, clay mineralogy, and soil water movement will govern whether or 
not sodium will migrate from the spoil to the topsoil. In this study chemical amend- 
ments had no effect on plant growth or soil chemistry. Irrigation increased the 



107 

aboveground biomass of planted grasses and legumes and reduced the annual weed pro- 
duction. Root biomass was decreased in irrigated plots. The key to grazingland pro- 
ductivity in the Northern Great Plains is the construction of minesoils so that they 
have suitable physical characteristics. 

198. Dollhopf, D. J., C. J. Levine, and B. J. Bauman. Reclamation Advances in 
Selective Placement of Overburden. Paper in Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of 
Mined Land? (Billings, MT , Mar. 26-27, 1980). Soil Cons. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 
1980, pp. 15-1 to 15-16. 

This paper reports the results of a study conducted near Colstrip, MT, to examine the 
extent and effects of overburden material mining during the spoiling process and 
to evaluate the feasibility of two methods of selective placement of toxic overbur- 
den material. Selective handling of a saline overburden zone followed either of two 
treatments: (1) segregation and burial or (2) segregation, burial, and covering with 
a relatively water-impermeable clay cap. The tests found that these treatments were 
technically feasible with a minimum of operational delays. However, costs of these 
methods were about 1.1 to 1.5 times the normal operational costs. Of particular sig- 
nificance was that a borehole sampling pattern approaching a 30- to 60-m grid was 
necessary to allow sufficiently accurate delineation of inhibitory overburden materi- 
als in order to implement selective overburden handling. The study is specifically 
pertinent to reclamation efforts in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 
However, it is felt that the concepts presented in this article are applicable to 
other coal mining regions as well. 

199. Dollhopf, D. J., and L. J. Russell. Assessment of Acid Producing Materials 
in the Northern Plains. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining 
and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State 
Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 
1984, pp. 201-210. 

This paper contains a review of the sources of mlnesoil acid production and evaluates 
the use of laboratory weathering methods as an alternative for lime requirement de- 
termination. The authors primarily examine minesoil acid production in the Northern 
Great Plains, where the coal overburden and hard rock mine waste material tend to 
contain mostly unoxidized sulfur in the organic form, rather than as sulfides. Stoi- 
chiometrical analysis of these complex sulfur-containing compounds is discussed. 
This paper is relevant to planning reclamation activities on these materials through- 
out the Northern Great Plains and portions of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Region. 

200. Drake, L. D. Recommendations for Rural Abandoned Mine Program in Iowa, USA. 
Miner. Environ., Mar. 1983, pp. 15-19. 

Observations made on a 10-year-old test plot designed with a wedge of loess over acid 
spoils are related to orphan coal surface mines in Iowa that have been reclaimed un- 
der the Federal Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP) by smoothing highly acid spoils, 
covering with a thin topsoil layer, and planting a cover crop. These observations 
suggest that acidified throughflow and discharge of shallow soil moisture and ground- 
water will eventually kill the vegetation in the lower valleys, and erosion will pro- 
ceed up the valley as a migrating knickpoint on the new RAMP sites. Elimination of 
this problem is suggested by redirection of the acidified throughflow below the cover 
material in sand underdrains or tile lines in the main drainages. If adequate flow 
is available, the discharge could be diluted in a nearby creek or it could be neu- 
tralized in a basin paved with limestone riprap. Native prairie grasses, crown-vetch 
( Coronilla varia L.), and cattails ( Typha spp .) were found to be especially well 
adapted to thin-cover sites. This article was written with specific reference to 
Iowa but the methods described may have application to other coal mining areas as 
well. 



108 

201. Drake, L. D. , and G. T. Ririe. A Low-Cost Method of Reclaiming Strip-Mined 
Land in Iowa to Agriculture. Environ. Geol., v. 3, 1981, pp. 267-279. 

A loess terrace method for reclaiming Mahaska County, lA, strip-mined cropland as 
mining progresses was designed and tested by the authors. This article provides an 
excellent analysis of this method of reclaiming strongly acidic spoils. Methodology 
and yields are clearly presented, as is a logical cost analysis. The article is rec- 
ommended for review and planning of methods for reclaiming mine spoils that have 
toxic levels of acidity. 

202. Dulle, R. Tree Planting Program of Southwestern Illinois Coal Corporation. 
Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 
31-Apr. 1, 1982). South. IL Univ. , Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 103-107. 

This paper outlines the tree plantings conducted by Southern Illinois Coal Corp. for 
the years 1978-82. A brief description of each site planted, what species were 
planted, how the trees were planted, and some survival data are given. Problems en- 
countered in establishing trees are also mentioned. 

203. Durham, F., and J. G. Barnum. Mine Reclamation in Arkansas. Paper in Trees 
for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. 
NE-61, 1980, pp. 9-10. 

This article contains general information on surface mine reclamation in Arkansas. 
The author discusses Arkansas' reclamation law, the extent of mining, and the direc- 
tion of reclamation research. Currently, there is a need to determine which species 
are adapted to Arkansas conditions and then produce nursery-grown hardwoods and soft- 
woods for use on Arkansas surface-mined land. 

204. Dusek, G. L. Bull Mountains Coal Field Study. Final Report (sponsored by 
Consolidation Coal Co.). MT Dep. of Fish and Game, July 1978, 128 pp. 

This report examines the impact or potential impact of surface mining on wildlife re- 
sources in the Bull Mountain area of Montana. Possible innovations or modifications 
in reclamation processes to avoid unnecessary loss of wildlife habitat are discussed. 
The report is based on range use, food habits, population trends, hunter harvest 
trends , vegetational development , and non-game-mammal inventory data collected as 
part of the study. This report is an excellent reference for reclamation planning. 
However, the data and discussions contained in the report are specific to the study 
area. 

205. Ebelhar, M. W. , R. I. Barnhisel, G. W. Akin, and J. L. Powell. Effect of 
Lime, N, P, and K Amendments to Surface-Mined Coal Spoils on Yield and Chemical Com- 
position of Common Bermudagrass. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, pp. 327- 
336. 

This study evaluated common bermudagrass ( Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) as an alterna- 
tive to planting cool-season grasses on acid sandstone surface-mine spoils in Muhlen- 
burg County, KY. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effects of lime, 
nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus amendments on the growth and development of com- 
mon bermudagrass, and to evaluate the effects of the amendments on the chemistry of 
acid surface-mine spoils. Lime applications were effective in raising the pH from 
3.4 to 4.6, 5.7, and 6.3 for the 18, 36, and 72 t/ha applied, respectively. However, 
the lime applications may have reduced the availability of soil potassium. Nitrogen 
additions had the most influence on bermudagrass production. Significant increases 
in dry matter production were observed with each additional increment of nitrogen 
(0, 50, and 100 kg/ha). Deficiency symptoms were observed where nitrogen was not ap- 
plied. Applications of phosphorus and potassium increased the elemental concen- 
tration in the bermudagrass but did not cause a significant increase in total dry 



109 

matter production. However, phosphorus and potassium increased the winter hardiness 
and survivability of bermudagrass. The authors conclude that bermudagrass offers an 
alternative to the cool-season grasses now used on reclaimed coal spoils in the humid 
regions of the Eastern United States. It may serve as a nurse crop to allow the es- 
tablishment of longer-lived grasses and legumes. 

206. Eddleman, L. E. Coal Mine Reclamation With Native Plants. Paper in Sympo- 
sium on Watershed Management 1980 (Boise, ID, July 21-23, 1980). Am. Soc. Civil 
Eng., 1980, pp. 80-90. 

This paper reports the results of a study to examine the effect of planting season 
on seedling emergence and establishment. The study was conducted at Western Energy 
Co.'s Rosebud coal strip mine near Colstrip, MT. Forty-four native plant species 
were examined including 17 grasses, 16 forbs, and 11 shrubs. Planting dates were 
early spring, midspring, and fall of 1978 and early spring and midspring of 1979. 
Eleven species established significant seedling numbers in the dry year of 1979. 
Five additional species established significant seedling numbers in the dry year 
when planted the previous fall. The author interpreted the results as indicating 
that these 16 species possess good potential for establishment in drought years and 
consequently could be used to stabilize the reclaimed soil under adverse environ- 
mental conditions. The results and discussion contained in this paper are pertinent 
to major portions of the Northern Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions . 

207. Eddleman, L. E. Indigenous Plants of Southeastern Montana. I. Viability 
and Suitability for Reclamation in the Fort Union Basin. MT For. and Conserv. Exp. 
Sta. , Sch. Forestry, Univ. MT, Missoula, MT, Spec. Publ. 4, Nov. 1977, 122 pp. 

The major emphasis of this project was to obtain information on seed production, col- 
lection, handling, and germination, and on seedling establishment of indigenous plant 
species of the Fort Union Basin. The overall objective of this research was to ac- 
quire information that would improve the probability of success in establishing in- 
digenous species on disturbed sites. The specific objectives of the project were to 
(1) examine and inventory natural seed maturation and production characteristics of 
indigenous plant species, (2) determine the best seed collection, handling, and stor- 
age methods, (3) determine the physical and chemical requirements that are necessary 
for breaking seed dormancy, (4) determine seed germination characteristics under con- 
trolled environmental conditions, and (5) examine vegetative propagation characteris- 
tics. A suEunary of each of the above characteristics is included in this report on 
16 grass, 20 forb, and 7 shrub species. The author states that inclusion of a spe- 
cies in the evaluation does not constitute a recommendation for inclusion in a seed 
mixture for reclamation purposes. Economic and ecologic criteria must be used to de- 
termine whether a species will be useful for reclamation purposes. 

208. Eddleman, L. E. Survey of Viability of Indigenous Grasses, Forbs, and 
Shrubs: Techniques for Initial Acquisition and Treatment for Propagation in Prepara- 
tion for Future Land Reclamation in the Fort Union Basin (Annual Progress Report, 
U.S. Ener. and Devel. Admin, contract EY-76-S-06-2232, Task Agreement #2). RLO-2232- 
T2-3, Feb. 1978, 232 pp. 

This report contains information on the collection, cleaning, and germination re- 
quirements of 51 species of grasses, forbs, shrubs, trees, and cacti indigenous to 
the Northern Great Plains. Also included is a summary of species for reclamation 
and seedling vigor under extreme environmental stresses. A key to the majority of 
grasses found in southeastern Montana, except introduced agronomic varieties, is 
given. A bibliography to assist in the location of germination information on plant 
species indigenous to the Fort Union Basin is included. This information is valuable 



no 

I 

for determining seed mixtures to use in reclamation, time of year to plant, and if 
preplanting seed treatments are needed. 

209. Eddleman, L. E. Survey of Viability of Indigenous Grasses, Forbs, and 
Shrubs: Techniques of Initial Acquisition and Treatment for Propagation in Prepara- 
tion for Future Land Reclamation in the Fort Union Basin. (U.S. DOE contract EY- 
76-S-06-2232). U.S. DOE, RLO-2232-T2-18, DE 82-018880, Prog. Rep., Feb. 1980, 
87 pp. 

This publication reports interim results of a study examining the dispersal phenology 
and germination requirements of numerous species of grasses, forbs, and shrubs 
indigenous to southeastern Montana. The final report for this study is also listed 
in this bibliography under the same author. This report has been reviewed and in- 
cluded because it contains extensive germination and seed treatment data for many of 
the species considered in the study. These data were not specifically presented in 
the final report. However, they may be of interest and useful in land reclamation 
activities or research. Since much of the information improves basic knowlege of the 
species considered, the information will be applicable in other areas of the Western 
United States as well. 

210. Eddleman, L. E. Survey of Viability of Indigenous Grasses, Forbs, and 
Shrubs: Techniques of Initial Acquisition and Treatment for Propagation in Prepa- 
ration for Future Land Reclamation in the Fort Union Basin. Final Report (U.S. DOE 
contract DE-AT06-76EV77002) . U.S. DOE, RLO-2232-T2-18, DE 82-018880, June 1982, 
29 pp. 

This report contains information on the dispersal, phenology, and germination re- 
quirements of 151 species of grasses, forbs, and shrubs indigenous to southeastern 
Montana. A classification scheme based on the germination requirements of these spe- 
cies was devised and subsequently applied to rating each species for inclusion in 
revegetation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the author reports that 
less than 50 pet of the common indigenous species will easily and rapidly reestab- 
lish on mine spoils. It is reported that the probability of establishment success 
will be enhanced significantly by selection of those species that rapidly germinate 
a large percentage of their seed and that produce seedings capable of maintaining 
growth through short drought periods . Dormancy-breaking requirements are reported 
for numerous species. This report builds on previous progress reports to provide ex- 
tremely useful information pertinent to determining seed mixtures for use in reclaim- 
ing surface coal mine land in major portions of the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining 
Region. 

211. Eichbaum, W. M. , and D. T. Buente. The Land Restoration Provisions of the 
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act: Constitutional Considerations. The Har. 
Environ. Law Rev., v. 4, No. 2, 1980, pp. 227-259. 

This article examines the possible 5th and 10th amendment challenges to the land- 
capability provisions of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 
(SMCRA). The analysis presented concludes that the land-capability requirements con- 
tained in SMCRA are within the Federal Government's constitutional authority. The 
authors conclude that lacking effective state regulations and enforcement, protective 
action taken by the Federal Government to manage natural resources is "necessary and 
consistent with constitutional principles." 

212. Ellis, J. E., and W. J. Parton. Impact of Strip-Mine Reclamation Practices: 
A Simulation Study (U.S. FWS contract 14-16-0008-2107 and Interagency Agreement EPA- 
IAG-D6-E685, Natl. Res. Ecol. Lab., CO State Univ.) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. 
W/Coal-78/W5, Mar. 1977, 329 pp. 



Ill 

A computer simulation model is described that replicates, in a reasonable fashion, 
the response of a strip-mined site to a variety of reclamation procedures and changes 
in the environment. The model was developed and tested using soil abiotic and biotic 
data from undisturbed plant communities around Colstrip, MT. The major components of 
the model include abiotic, producer, ruminant, decomposer, and sediment production 
submodels. The flow of water in the system, the temperature profile in the plant 
canopy and soil, and loss of soil due to wind and water erosion are simulated in the 
abiotic submodel. The producer submodel simulates the flow of carbon in the plant 
shoot-root system for a variety of plant species. The biomass dynamics of the mi- 
crobes, nitrogen cycling in the soil-plant system, and decomposition of litter and 
dead roots are simulated by the decomposer submodel. The ruminant model simulates 
the flow of carbon and nitrogen through the grazing animals. The sediment production 
model is concerned with sediment load in the runoff water. The model was used in 
computer simulation runs , which showed that the ecosystem studied is extremely re- 
sponsive to nitrogen. The simulations indicate that nitrogen may be the major factor 
limiting the rate at which ecosystem processes occur. Topsoil is critical to all 
other aspects of reclamation as a source of nitrogen and organic matter. The authors 
stress that the reclamation simulation model presented in their report should be con- 
sidered preliminary and not directly applicable to regions with climate and soil 
characteristics different from the Colstrip, MT area for which it was developed. In 
addition it should also be pointed out that , at the time of their report , the authors 
had not tested the model with data other than those used to initially develop the 
model. The program may be exceptionally applicable to reclamation efforts in the 
Colstrip area and could provide an excellent starting point for reclamation studies 
and planning in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 
This report has been rated "excellent" or "good" for numerous keywords used in the 
evaluation process. This rating system has been applied somewhat differently for 
this report. Since this report deals with a computer model and not actual field 
studies, the ratings represent the apparent treatment of these subject areas by the 
simulation model and the conceptual basis for the model. 

213. Emrich, S. L. Methods for Evaluating Diversity. Paper in Symposium on 
Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. 
Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr., 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Col- 
lins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 43-46. 

The author examines the concept of establishing a diverse, effective, and permanent 
vegetative cover and discusses general methods of establishing species diversity. A 
method for evaluation species diversity that has been proposed by the Colorado Mined 
Land Division is described. This method is a species composition approach utilizing 
premine, baseline data. Consequently, it circumvents some of the problems sometimes 
encountered using the reference area approach. This article could be applied to de- 
signing monitoring programs for evaluating reclamation success for much of the North- 
ern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation 
process. 

214. Energy and Mineral Resources Research Institute, Iowa State University. Iowa 
Coal Project, Report to the Legislature. lA St. Univ., Ames, lA, Rep. IS-ICP-57 , 
July 1977. 18 pp. 

This publication provides a brief synopsis of the numerous research studies conducted 
under a program called the Iowa Coal Project. The major objectives of the project 
were to demonstrate state-of-the-art economic coal mining, coal processing, and mine- 
land reclamation methods. To that end, a full-scale demonstration mine, beneficia- 
tion plant, and reclamation project were instituted. Agricultural row crop produc- 
tion was the targeted postmining land use. The agronomic studies examined the growth 



112 

of corn ( Zea mays L.), soybeans, ( Glycime max (L.) Merr.) and tomatoes ( Lycopersicum 
esculentum Mill.) under different tillage systems. The results of these studies in- 
dicated that deep tillage of replaced soil is necessary to obtain the greatest possi- 
ble yields. Tomatoes were used as an indicator crop. No nutrient deficiencies or 
toxicities were observed. However, compaction increased moisture deficiency during 
drought periods and restricted rooting. This report, together with earlier and later 
progress reports, is an excellent reference for reclamation of surface-mined land for 
agricultural row crop production. Water quality, crop production, and overburden 
characterization data are contained in the progress reports. The ratings assigned to 
the keywords in this evaluation reflect the information and discussion contained in 
the associated progress reports in addition to the publication cited above. 

215. Energy Resources Co. Inc. Low-Rank Coal Study, National Needs for Resource 
Development, Volume 4 - Regulatory, Environmental, and Market Analysis. U.S. DOE 
contract DOE/FC/10066-TI (v. 4), Nov. 1980, 224 pp. 

This document is volume 4 of a six-volume study. The purpose of this portion of the 
study was to formulate scenarios for low-rank coal development, characterize the re- 
source, evaluate the existing and required technology, review the regulatory require- 
ments and constraints, analyze environmental impacts, and provide a market analysis. 
The document provides a good review of Federal and state regulations affecting coal 
mining and mineland reclamation. Factors affecting mineland reclamation are treated 
in a relatively general manner. The scope of the document is designed for nationwide 
applications. However, because of the distribution of lignite and subbituminous coal 
in the United States , the information is primarily relevant to the Northern Great 
Plains, Rocky Mountain, and Gulf Coast Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evalua- 
tion process. 

216. Engle, J. A. Reforestation Species Study on a Reclaimed Surface Mine in 
Western Maryland. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). 
U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 35-36. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the survival and height growth of 18 species of 
trees planted on a reclaimed surface mine in Garrett County, MD. After 2 years 
height growth ranged from 0.4 to 2.3 ft. American sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis 
L.) had the lowest height growth, while black locust ( Robina pseudoacacia L.) had the 
best height growth. Seven species had survival rates of 75 pet or better, with pitch 
pine (Pinus rigida Mill.) having the highest survival rate (94 pet). Seven other 
species had survival rates between 50 and 75 pet. The remaining nine species were 
classified as having poor survival, less than 50 pet. Some of the poor survival can 
be attributed to poor seedling stock quality. Most of the survival and height growth 
problems were caused by the harsh site conditions and competition from herbaceous 
vegetation. 

217. Evangelou, V. P., and R. I. Barnhisel. Reyegetation Guide for Surface Mined 
Land in Kentucky. Univ. KY, (Lexington, KY) , Dept. Agronomy AGR-95, 1982, 7 pp. 

This guide contains information on selected grasses and legumes used to revegetate 
surface-mined land in Kentucky. Information is presented on species selection, seed 
quality, species proportions in a seed mixture, seeding rates, and the time to seed. 
The species listed in this guide can also be utilized in other locations of the East- 
ern and Interior Coal Regions. 

218. Evangelou, V. P., and R. I. Barnhisel. Sampling Surface Mine Lands Before 
and After Mining. Univ. KY, (Lexington, KY) , Dept. Agronomy AGR-41, Rev. July 1981, 
7 pp. 

This extension service publication provides an excellent outline for the procedures 
to be followed in collecting representative soil samples for fertility analysis of 



113 

natural soil and surface-mined lands. While the specific instructions for submit- 
ting a sample for analysis pertain only to the State of Kentucky, the rationale and 
procedures for collecting samples are considered universal. Consequently the publi- 
cation is not regionally specific. 

219. Evangelou, V. P., and J. H. Grove. Evaluation of Changes in the Chemi- 
cal Equilibria of Soils/Spoils During Wetting-Drying Cycles Using a Computer Model 
(REC-1). Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, 
pp. 381-386. 

This research was conducted to explain why the solution composition is needed in 
planning the reclamation of gypsiferous soils and to show how a computer model might 
be used to answer questions pertinent to the mechanics of reclamation. The solution 
composition of gypsiferous soils is needed because plant growth will be depressed if 
soluble salts are too high. The computer model developed (REC-1) used three major 
factors that control spoil solution composition and concentration. These factors 
were (1) the thermodynamic solubility product constant of gypsum, (2) selectivity 
coefficient for Ca-Mg exchange on colloid surfaces, and (3) ion pair stability con- 
stants for CaS04 and MgS04 monomers. Data from the literature was used to test the 
model. The model can be used for soils and spoils that have a pH greater than 5, or 
if the pH is below 5 and the iron and aluminum concentrations in their solution are 
negligible. This model can be used to (1) predict the actual Ca:Mg ratio of limed 
coal spoils, (2) predict the sulfate concentration of limed coal spoils, and (3) pre- 
dict solution compositions at low soil-water ratios between field capacity and perma- 
nent wilting point. 

220. Evangelou, V. P., L. W. Murdock, and F. J. Coale. Oil Well Salt Brine Con- 
taminated Soils: Their Chemistry and Reclamation. Paper in 1983 Sjnnposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 
2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 443-446. 

This study was conducted to determine the soditim threshold contamination points of 
soil contaminated by brine discharge from oil wells located in McLean County, KY. 
Soil samples were taken from an agricultural field across a salt gradient and ana- 
lyzed for extractable Ca, Mg, Na, and K, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC). A 
greenhouse pot experiment was conducted with the most contaminated sample and amended 
with four rates of gypsum: 0, 5,114, 12,000, and 25,520 lb/acre. The pots were then 
continuously leached until the EC of the leachate was below 3 mmho/cm. Three types 
of problems are generally recognized when soils are contaminated by oil well salt 
brines: (1) the sodium buildup in the soil solution is toxic to plants, (2) the salt 
buildup causes high osmotic pressures, and (3) an unbalanced solution is produced 
which causes soil dispersion due to sodium dominance. This study demonstrates how 
the degree of sodium contamination can be predicted. If the sodium concentration in 
a saturation extract exceeds 4 meq/1 then a sodium absorption ratio (SAR) should be 
calculated. If the SAR approaches 10, then the amount of sodium present should be 
determined in an ammonium acetate extract , and the amount of gypsum needed can be es- 
timated. The greenhouse pot experiments demonstrated that gypsum application and 
leaching are effective treatments for reclaiming sodium-contaminated soils. Soybeans 
( Glycine max (L.) Merr.) seeded in the pots grew normally only if gypsum was applied. 
When no gypsum was applied, high EC's and pH's resulted, when compared to the other 
treatments, and water did not move through the soil. 

221. Evangelou, V. P., and W. 0. Thom. Coal Spoil Chemistry Interpretations and 
the Effect of Spoil Chemical Changes in the Continuity of Nutrient Availability. 
Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by 
AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre 
Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 55-67. 



114 

This paper provides a discussion of the physical and chemical factors limiting tree 
establishment and growth on surface-mined lands and how they may be expected to shift 
with respect to time. The authors stress that establishment of trees or any other 
type of vegetation is subject to solution phase chemistry. Problems with vegetation 
establishment may be due to high salinity levels and/or magnesium dominance of the 
spoil water system. The results used in the discussion originate from research con- 
ducted in southern Ohio and eastern Kentucky. The paper provides a good reference 
for understanding nutrient availability based on soil solution phase chemistry in the 
soils of this area. This paper is probably most pertinent to the central portion of 
the Eastern Coal Mining Region and the east-central portion of the Interior Coal Min- 
ing Region. 

222. Evans, T. F. Reforestation of Surface Mines on Lands of VICC Land Company. 
Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., 
Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 41-43. 

The author discusses the use of a permanent plot inventory to determine the timber 
resource on VICC Land Co. lands in southeastern Virginia. The purpose of this inven- 
tory is to set the limits on yearly timber harvests and define the areas on which 
timber management activities should take place. By periodically remeasuring the per- 
manent plots, it will be possible to gain information on timber growth and forest 
stand changes. The results of the initial inventory show an average of 1,750 trees 
per acre. Appoximately 60 pet of the trees were less than 1 in Dbh and 80 pet were 
10 ft tall or less. Only 29 pet of the total number of seedlings inventoried were 
the result of planting or direct-seeding black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and 
Pinus spp. Pioneer tree species comprise most of the trees in the seedling inven- 
tory. This shows how important natural reseeding is to the present seedling stock. 
The author concludes that future tree plantings on surface-mined land should be aimed 
at increasing the growing stock of the more valuable hardwood species or pure stands 
of the more easily managed pines. 

223. Everett, C. J. Effects of Biological Weathering on Mine Soil Genesis and 
Fertility. Ph. D. Thesis, VA Poly, and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA, 1981, 125 pp. 

This study was conducted to understand the role of biological weathering in mine 
soils derived from overburden rock from Buchanan County, VA. The objectives of the 
study were to (1) evaluate plant-available phosphorus and potassium in fractured 
overburden rock, (2) identify the effects of biological weathering on fractured over- 
burden rock and describe the processes involved, and (3) assess the impact of biolog- 
ical weathering on the availability of phosphorus and potassium to plants. Two sepa- 
rate greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine plant-available phosphorus 
and potassium and to identify the effects of biological weathering on soil proper- 
ties. The results of these experiments indicate that plant-available phosphorus and 
potassium are influenced by biological weathering. By removing bases and producing 
acids, the plants caused acidification of the soil material. This process solubi- 
lized the phosphorus and increased the amount available for plant uptake. However, 
as the apatite dissolves, the amount of phosphorus available will decline and become 
limiting. Potassium was described as adequate for plant growth. Since there were 
considerable amounts of mica present in the soil material, the author feels that the 
biological weathering process will constantly replenish the soil solution with potas- 
sium from mica. 

224. Everett, H. W. , D. S. Henry, and S. A. Sanders. Establishment of Some Forage 
Species on Mine Spoil in Kentucky. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and 
Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Nat. 
Coal Assoc, and Bitum. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 12-15. 



115 

This paper provides a brief description of two studies conducted on mine spoil in 
both eastern and western Kentucky. The purpose of these studies was to evaluate 
methods of establishing several potentially useful forage species on mine spoil. 
Eight different grasses and legumes were planted alone or in mixtures with five dif- 
ferent methods of establishment. The preliminary results reported indicate that when 
fresh mine spoil has the proper pH and nutrients available, several species can be 
established for erosion control and for forage production without the use of straw 
mulch. However, rating for ground cover 6 months after seeding showed that woodbark 
and straw mulch produced more cover. Percent ground cover due to seeded species only 
(biomass) was less with straw mulch treatments. The results of these studies are ap- 
plicable to reclamation planning in major portions of the Eastern and Interior Coal 
Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

225. Evilsizer, B. Reclamation with Trees in Illinois. Paper in Trees for Recla- 
mation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 
1980, pp. 15-16. 

The author discusses the historic record of large-scale tree planting programs in 
Illinois, from hedgerows planted by the early pioneers to farmstead windbreaks to 
surface-mine reclamation. Since the 1930' s approximately 50 million tree seedlings 
have been planted on surface-mined land. It is hoped that tree planting programs on 
mined land can be expanded in the future. 

226. Farmer, R. E. Jr., M. Cunningham, and M. A. Barnhill. First-Year Development 
of Plant Communities Originating From Forest Topsoil Placed on Southern Appalachian 
Minesoils. J. Appl. Ecol., v. 19, No. 1, 1982, pp. 283-294. 

The authors evaluated the revegetation potential of forest topsoil from mixed decid- 
uous stands spread over minesoil in the Cumberland Mountains of eastern Tennessee. 
Forest topsoil from three sites near the mining operation were collected and spread 
over minesoils to a depth of 2 to 3 cm. Ammonium nitrate (168 kg/ha) and triple 
superphosphate (280 kg/ha) were broadcast on the site after the topsoil had been 
spread. An average of 286 plants per square meter, representing 134 taxa, had 
emerged by late May, and over 90 pet of these plants survived the entire growing sea- 
son. The number of plants did not significantly change with either topsoil or mine- 
soil as substrate. At the end of the growing season shoot and root weight was ap- 
proximately 8.4 t/ha. The authors conclude that forest topsoils found in the areas 
being mined in the Cumberland Mountains can provide diverse plant communities capable 
of quick, effective cover which has the potential for developing into forests. 

227. Farmer, E. E., and B. Z. Richardson. Acid Mine Waste Revegetation: Influ- 
ence on Soil-Water Quality. U.S. For. Ser. Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. , 
FSRP/lNT-266, Jan. 1981, 12 pp. 

This publication summarizes the results of a 5-year study of soil-water ionic con- 
centrations of copper, iron, and sulfate at the Blackbird copper-cobalt mine near 
Salmon, ID. Soil-water samples were collected using ceramic cup samplers installed 
in an acid-producing overburden waste dump. Part of the waste dump was treated with 
lime, topsoil, and fertilizer and then reseeded to establish a heavy stand of grass. 
Another portion of the waste material remained untreated. Both areas exhibited de- 
creasing soil-water ionic concentrations of copper, iron, and sulfate. The revegeta- 
tion procedures used in this study did not affect the concentrations compared to the 
untreated portion of the waste material. The authors stress that the major purpose 
and importance of revegetating spoils and waste dumps is to control surface erosion. 
They suggest that in the case of this mine, the vegetation also controls dust. The 
results of this study are also relevant to surface coal mine reclamation efforts and 
with prudent consideration could be applied in a variety of areas throughout the 
United States. 



116 

228. Federal Register. U.S. Office of Surface Mining and Enforcement (Dep. Inte- 
rior). Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operations, Permanent Regulatory Program; 
Revegetation. V. 48, No. 172, Sept. 2, 1983, pp. 40140-40162. 

This publication contains the final rules adopted by the Office of Surface Mining for 
the revegetation of regraded areas and all other areas disturbed by surface and un- 
derground coal mining operations. It amends 30 CFR Parts 816 and 817, and adds a 
definition for "ground cover" in 30 CFR Part 701. The effective date for these final 
rules is October 3, 1983. 

229. Fedkenheuer , A. W. , and J. Browne. Reclamation Research for the Future at 
Syncrude Canada Ltd.: Soil Simulation Revegetation Studies on Tailings Sand. Syn- 
crude Canada Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta, Dec. 1979, 8 pp. 

This is a very general article concerning Syncrude 's efforts to return vast acreages 
of spent oil sands to a vegetative cover having a productivity at least equal to pre- 
mine conditions. The location is northeastern Alberta, near Fort McMurray, and 
the material is the Athabasca tar sands. Syncrude 's objective was to return its dis- 
turbed areas to forest and wildlife areas, and the field studies include soil build- 
ing simulations, fertilization, seeding with grasses and legumes, and planting woody 
seedlings. No results are given; however, more details can be obtained from the 
sources listed in the paper. 

230. Fedkenheuer, A. W. , H. M. Heacock, and D. L. Lewis. Early Performance of 
Native Shrubs and Trees Planted on Amended Athabasca Oil Sand Tailings. Reclam. 
Rev., v. 3, No. 1, 1980, pp. 47-55. 

The early results are reported of an attempt to establish woody plants on Athabasca 
oil sand tailings located in northeastern Alberta, Canada. The tailings sand was 
treated with 10 cm of native sand, 10 cm of lean tar sand, 10 cm of mineral fines, or 
20 cm of mineral fines applied over tailings sand. Fifty kilograms per hectare of 
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizer along with 15 cm of peat were applied 
to each plot and rotovated to a depth of 30 cm. All plots were seeded with a grass- 
legume mixure at a rate of 11 kg/ha followed by tree and shrub plantings. The tree 
and shrub species utilized in this study were propagated and container grown. The 
•plot treatment that resulted in the highest tree and shurb survival rates was the 
lean tar sand amendment. The authors feel that the reduced grass-legume cover on 
this treatment resulted in more moisture being available to the woody species, hence 
in higher survival rates. Preliminary results indicate that the following tree and 
shrub species had the highest survival rates over the range of treatments used: 
saskatoon ( Amelanchier alnlfolia Nutt.), Jack pine ( Pinus banksiana Lamb.), lodgepole 
pine ( Pinus contorta Loudon, var. latif olia Engelm.), shrubby cinquefoil ( Potentilla 
f ruticosa L.) , Canadian buffaloberry ( Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt.), and snow- 
berry ( Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake). 

231. Fehrenbacher , D. J., I. J. Jansen, and J. B. Febrenbacher . Corn Root Devel- 
opment in Constructed Soils on Surface Mined Land in Western Illinois. Soil Sci. 
Soc. Am. J., V. 46, 1982, pp. 353-359. 

This study compares corn root development in soils constructed after mining and in an 
undisturbed soil (reference area) on experimental plots constructed at the Sunspot 
Mine in Fulton County, IL. The objectives of the study were to (1) compare corn root 
systems in four different constructed soils and one undisturbed soil, and (2) relate 
differences in root system development to measurable differences in the physical and 
chemical properties of the soils. The soil treatments were (1) topsoil (A hori- 
zon) over replaced B horizon (A/B) , (2) topsoil over graded dragline spoil only CA/ 
spoil, and (3) an undisturbed soil (reference area) as a control. Root penetration 
and length were recorded for all samples. Based on first-year corn root data, the 



117 

undisturbed site was more favorable, the A/B intermediate, and the A/ spoil least de- 
sirable as rooting material. This relationship is consistent with observed differ- 
ences in pH, bulk density, and soil structure. This suggests that when B horizon 
soil materials are replaced with minimal compaction, it is a more favorable rooting 
material than dragline spoil. 

232. Ferguson, R. B., and N. C. Frischknecht. Revegetating Processed Oil Shale in 
the Upper Mountainbrush Zone of Colorado. U.S. For. Ser. Res. Paper INT-321, 1983, 
9 pp. 

This study was conducted to provide information on methods used to establish vegeta- 
tion on processed shale disposal areas, located in Garfield County, CO, without using 
large volumes of water to leach salts from the processed shale, A second objective 
was to evaluate 14 species on their adaptablility to the soil material and climatic 
conditions of the site. Three amendments were used on the unleached TOSCO II pro- 
cessed oil shale: (1) 15 to 25 cm of topsoil covering, (2) 5 to 10 cm covering of 
rock fragments, and (3) barley straw (applied at a rate of 0.73 t/ha incorporated 
to a depth of 15 to 20 cm. All of the species used in this study (13 shrubs and 1 
forb) were container grown and then transplanted onto the site. After 6 years the 
overall survival was four times greater on topsoiled shale than on the straw-mulched 
shale, and i.5 times greater on the topsoiled shale than on the rock-mulched shale. 
Plots on north-facing slopes were the most favorable for plant growth. Fourwing 
saltbush (Al \plex canes cens (Pursh) Nutt.) and prostrate summercypress ( Kochia pro- 
strata (L.) S^hard.) grew well on all amended plots. Rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysotham- 
nus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt.), mountain big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata subsp. 
vaseyana Rydb.), green ephedra ( Ephedra viridis Coville) , fourwing saltbrush, and 
prostrate summercypress were the only species that showed adaptability to topsoil- 
covered processed oil shale. The authors recommend that processed oil shale should 
be covered with a minimum of 20 cm or preferably 30 cm of topsoil before attempting 
revegetation. 

233. Ferguson, R. B., and N. C. Frischnuecht. Shrub Establishment on Recon- 
structed Soils, Paper in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid and Semi -Arid Lands 
(Proc. Symp,, Laramie, WY, Dec, 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep,, 1981, pp, 57-63. 

The authors discuss direct seeding of grass-shrub mixtures, direct seeding of shrubs 
alone, and the planting of shrub nursery stock (bare-root and containerized) on re- 
claimed land. Important factors to be considered for each situation are presented. 
Lists of shrub species showing promise for revegetation of disturbed areas in the 
semiarid salt desert shrub zone and the semiarid pinyon- juniper shrub zone of Utah 
are included. The information presented is valuable to planning revegetation efforts 
in portions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

234. Ferrandino, J. Preliminary Regional Characterization of Sediment Yield for 
Surface Coal Mines. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimen- 
tology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1981, pp. 395-400. 

The results of a preliminary regional characterization of sediment yield (CP) for 
surface coal mines in the United States are presented. Representative mine models 
were developed for six regions. Two models, a contour haulback and a mountaintop 
operation, were developed for the Southern Appalachian region. The SEDMOT computer 
model (a simple distributed parameter approach to watershed sedimentology) was used 
to compute hydrographs and sediment graphs for each disturbed watershed studied. The 
CP value, calculated by considering a minimum reclamation practice of backfilling, 
grading, seeding, and mulching, gives an indication of the relative erosion potential 
of a mine. The western mine site had the smallest overall sediment yield value of 



118 

0.002 acre-ft/acre while the Southern Appalachian contour haulback had the highest, 
0.256 acre-ft/acre. 

235. Fischer, N. T. An Evaluation of Sample Adequacy for Pre- and Post-Mine Vege- 
tation Surveys Using Computer-Generated Artificial Communities. Paper in 1982 Sympo- 
sium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 
5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 103-110. 

This study uses an empirical approach to the problems of sample adequacy for line 
intercept data. Model plant communities were developed through a computer program 
that allows for programmer-controlled coverage specification. An adequacy test can 
then be used to test against the actual number of transects required to satisfy the 
accuracy criteria. The two criteria used in this study were (1) the accuracy limit 
is equal to 1/lOth of the community coverage, and (2) the accuracy limit is held 
constant at 5 percentage points above and below the true coverage for all coverages. 
The highest calculated sample size was 1,440 at 1-pct cover using the l/lOth accuracy 
constraint. The large sample sizes associated with low community coverage were found 
to be an artifact of the 1/lOth accuracy constraint. There is no justification for 
using a mean dependent accuracy limit on vegetation coverage data. The author pro- 
poses that a constant accuracy level of 5 percentage points be used. If adopted, 
both time and money spent in the field collecting data may be saved without changing 
the quality of the data collected. 

236. Fisher, J. T., J. B. McRar, and E. F. Aldon. Methods for Establishing Con- 
tainerized Native Juniper on Surface Disturbed Sites in the Southwest. Paper in 
Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal 
Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, 
June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 76-88. 

A review of methods for woody plant establishment in the Southwest is provided in 
addition to a discussion of current research. Containerized native juniper (Juni— 
perus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg.) were planted on three northern New Mexico mine 
spoils. Depending on the treatments applied, good to excellent success was obtained. 
Preliminary results indicate that irrigation and the application of triple superphos- 
phate (0-46-0) are beneficial to seedling survival, whereas slow-release fertilizer 
(Osmocote 18-6-9) caused mortality. On some sites rodent protection is absolutely 
necessary. The importance of time of planting is also discussed. Information very 
useful to reclamation planning is provided. This information is pertinent to the 
Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Region recognized in this evaluation process. 

237. Fisher, S. E. , Jr., and F. F. Munshower. Extremely Acid Soils, Overburden 
and MLnesoils in the Great Plains. Paper in the Third Biennial Sjrmposium on Surface 
Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, 
MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and 
U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 186-200. 

Extremely acid soils (pH less than 4.5) developing from parent materials high in 
pyrite and marcasite were recently identified in the Western United States. Mine- 
soils containing significant quantities of acid-forming materials have also been 
identified in this region. Analytical data are presented on overburden materials 
from several Western States, containing high concentrations of acid-forming materi- 
als. The authors discuss the impact of spoil materials derived from these overburden 
strata on the formation and characteristics of minesoils and on the establishment 
of a permanent, effective, and diverse vegetative cover. This paper is relevant to 
planning reclamation activities on these materials throughout the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

238. Fisser, H. G. Soil Surface Movement and Relation to Vegetation Structure. 
Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. 



119 

for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Perga- 
mon, 1979, pp. 706-711. 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of livestock grazing and 
chemical shrub control upon the soil surface characteristics of a low sagebrush 
( Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.) community in western Wyoming near Kemmerer. No signifi- 
cant soil movement response was found for the grazing treatment. Significant soil 
movement was reported for the chemical shrub control treatment. Chemical shrub con- 
trol in combination with grazing resulted in extremely significant soil movement, 
which had a very important influence on the ability of the native vegetation to ex- 
press production potential modification. The author suggests that the methods used 
in this study are applicable to monitoring soil surface dynamics on reclaimed mine- 
land. This article is a good reference for designing reclamation monitoring pro- 
grams. While the study was conducted in Wyoming and the results reported are spe- 
cific to that area, the methods used may be applicable nationwide. 

239. Fowler, D. K. , and L. F. Adkisson. Survival and Growth of Wildlife Shrubs 
and Trees on Acid Mine Spoil. Tennessee Valley Authority, Div. Land and For. Res., 
Tech. Note B37, 1980, 49 pp. 

This study assessed the survival and growth of selected wildlife plants over a range 
of acid mine spoil conditions in Campbell and Scott Counties, TN. A second objective 
was to identify species suitable for surface mine reclamation. Seventeen tree and 
shrub species were evaluated. To assess the effects of spoil pH on plant establish- 
ment and growth, plots were grouped into seven pH categories ranging from 2.50-2.99 
to 5.50-5.99. Tree and shrub performances were determined by assigning minimum 
acceptable growth and survival criteria in each pH category. Once the species 
were judged to be acceptable for reclamation use, they were rated as to their short- 
and long-term suitability for wildlife habitat improvement. Autum olive ( Elaeagnus 
umbellata Thunb . ) , elaeagnus cherry ( Elaeagnus multiflora Thunb.), "arnot" bristly 
locust ( Robinia fertilis Ashe), sawtooth oak ( Quercus acutissima Carruth.), red maple 
( Acer rubrum L.), and "Toringo" crabapple ( Malcus sieboldii (Reg.) Rehd.) were found 
to be species most useful for quick improvement of surface mine habitat over the 
range of spoil pH in Appalachia coalfields. Even though this study was conducted be- 
fore Public Law 95-87 was enacted, the results are useful for selecting species that 
can be used in a postmining land-use design for wildlife habitat. 

240. Fowler, D. K. L. J. Turner, and L. J. Slaski. Surface Mine Reclamation for 
Wildlife: A Model Reclamation Plan for Southern Appalachia (U.S. FWS contract 14-16- 
0009-78-908, Off. of Nat. Res.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-80/09, June 
1981, 30 pp. 

This publication presents a reclamation plan for use on surface coal mines in south- 
ern Appalachia. Suggestions for the establishment of ground cover and trees, as well 
as the retention of surface water on the mine site, are included. The plan presented 
has been implemented cooperatively by TVA and the Fish and Wildlife Service on a mine 
site in Campbell County, TN. The reclamation techniques discussed in the plan bene- 
fit wildlife and can aid a mine operator in achieving bond release. The costs of 
reclamation at the study site are compared to the costs of a more traditional for- 
estry (monoculture) option. The economic analysis indicated that the costs of recla- 
mation for wildlife were less than the cost associated with the forestry option. The 
discussions and methods contained in this document are pertinent to portions of the 
Interior and the Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

241. Frame, R. C, and R. R. Hicks, Jr. Propagation of Aspen and Woody Shrubs on 
Reclaimed West Virgina Surface Mines. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better 
Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. 



120 

and Madlsonville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West 
Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 37-47. 

The effects of three site preparation treatments on the survival and growth of sev- 
eral woody species were studied on two reclaimed surface mines in north-central 
West Virginia. These treatments included the use of Dalapon and Atrazine herbicides 
or black plastic mulch to control competition from herbaceous cover. Root suckers 
from bigtooth aspen ( Populus grandidentata Michx.) and trembling aspen ( Populus trem- 
uloides Michx. ) as well as seedlings of Washington hawthorne ( Crataegus phaenopyrum 
(L.) Medic), gray dogwood ( Cornus racemosa Lam.), European black alder ( Alnus gluti- 
nosa (L.) Gaertn.), and pink spiraea ( Spiraea billiardi Herincq.) were used in the 
study. The best overall results were obtained using Dalapon to control herbaceous 
competition. Washington hawthorne and gray dogwood had significantly better survival 
than the other species tested. The results reported are pertinent to reclamation 
planning in the Eastern and portions of the Interior Coal Mining Regions recognized 
in this evaluation process. 

242. Franklin, J. W. Simulation of the Revegetation Potential of Coal Mines in 
Semi -Arid Climates. M.S. Thesis, Univ. AZ, Tucson, AZ, 1981, 87 pp. 

The author presents a computer model that predicts the success or failure of revege- 
tation of coal mine spoils in the semiarid Southwest, as typified by the Black Mesa 
Mine in northeastern Arizona. The model consists of a stochastic rainfall model cou- 
pled to a soil moisture model. For a 1-year period only, the most limiting factor is 
the amount of soil moisture available for the germination process. An irrigation 
model was also run to evaluate the addition of moisture during the first year of es- 
tablishment. Very little additional moisture (via irrigation) would be necessary to 
greatly improve establishment; however, evaluation of a 10-year period after the year 
of establishment showed that without first-year irrigation there was very little 
chance of successful revegetation. The author concludes that Federal law governing 
revegetation of arid mined lands can be met if proper species are selected, the soil 
moisture holding capacity is increased through mulch addition, and irrigation is ap- 
plied the first year of establishment. Since plant death will generally occur early 
in the cycle. Federal law need only require a 5-year waiting period to determine if 
revegetation is successful, rather than the 10-year period now established. 

243. Fransway, D. F., and R. J. Wagenet. Salt Release and Movement in Processed 
Oil Shale. J. Environ. Qual. , v. 10, No. 1, 1981, pp. 107-113. 

This paper deals with the reduction of saline minerals, such as dawsonite, nahcolite 
and halite, contained in Paraho processed oil shale from Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. 
These salts are not removed in the normal processing of oil shales, and if excessive, 
could cause adverse effects on plant establishment and growth if concentrated in the 
root zone. Properly managed, the addition of excess water could leach the salts be- 
low the root zone without affecting ground water. 

244. Fresquez, P. R. , and W. C. Lindemann. Greenhouse and Laboratory Evaluations 
of Amended Coal-Mine Spoils. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 3, 1983, pp. 205-215. 

The authors describe the effects of spoil treatment on the growth potential and nu- 
trient content of blue gamma ( Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K. Lag.) and fourwing saltbush 
( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). The spoil material and stockpiled topsoil used 
in this greenhouse study were taken from the San Juan coal mine in northwestern New 
Mexico. The chemical and physical properties of the spoil and topsoil materials were 
then determined. In the greenhouse studies only the spoil material was amended using 
one or a combination of the following materials: alfalfa, gamma-irrigated sewage 
sludge, stockpiled topsoil, fertilizer (N and P), and gypsum. It was found that al- 
falfa mulch plus fertilizer increased the yields and P and K contents of blue grama 



121 

more than any other treatment. Organic amendments were found to increase the yields 
of fourwing saltbush more than any other treatment including fertilizer. Incorporat- 
ing topsoil into the spoil, as opposed to topsoiling, did not stimulate plant growth. 
The increased yields found for both species can be attributed to the addition of or- 
ganic matter and essential plant nutrients, along with an improved biological envi- 
ronment. There was an increase in microbial activity, due to the spoil amendments, 
which resulted in the mineralization and solubilization of calcium, magnesium, potas- 
sium, and phosphorus; increased nitrification; and the lowering of the sodium absorp- 
tion ratio (SAR). Gypsum applications also increased the yields of both species 
under optimum moisture conditions over most nongypsum treatments, whether organic 
matter was present or not. Gypsxmi application stimulated plant growth by lowering 
the SAR. The authors concluded that increased plant yields were due to the addition 
of plant-available nutrients contained in the amendments and increased microbial 
activity. 

245. Fresquez, P. R. , and W. C. Lindemann. Soil and Rhizosphere Microorganisms in 
Amended Coal Mine Spoils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 46, No. 4, 1982, pp. 751-755. 

This research compared soil microbial numbers, dehydrogenase activity, and fungal 
genera distribution of spoil to that of the original and stockpiled soil. When eval- 
uating this article the original undisturbed soil was considered as a reference area. 
A greenhouse study was also conducted, using spoil and stockpiled topsoil mate- 
rial, to determine the effect of spoil amendments on the microbial parameters given 
above. The treatments used were (1) spoil, (2) spoil and topsoil + inoculant, 
(3) spoil + alfalfa ( Medicage sativa L.) + fertilizer, (4) spoil + alfalfa + ferti- 
lizer + topsoil, (5) spoil + sewage sludge, and (6) spoil + sewage sludge + topsoil. 
The soil and spoil material used in this study were collected at the San Juan coal 
mine near Farmington, NM. The results show that microbial numbers, dehydrogenase ac- 
tivity, and fungal general distribution were greater in the undisturbed soil and re- 
claimed area than in the stockpiled topsoil or nonvegetated spoil. This indicates 
that if sites are reclaimed without topsoiling or if topsoil is stored before use, 
steps should be taken to insure that the material remains biologically active. The 
use of alfalfa or sewage sludge as organic amendments generally increases microbial 
numbers, dehydrogenase activity, and fungal distribution over the nonamended and 
topsoil-inoculant treatments. The authors conclude that organic amendments are more 
critical to the stimulation of spoil microfora than the addition of topsoil inocu- 
lants. However, it is necessary to remember that the results were obtained under 
greenhouse conditions. 

246. Friedlander, J. D. Liability Period and Management of Reclaimed Lands. Pa- 
per in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & 
Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. 
Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 103-104. 

The liability period imposed by the 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 
and subsequent State regulations is reviewed and evaluated with reference to the con- 
ditions and land uses encountered in the Western United States. The author states 
that a universal 10-year liability period does not meet site-specific needs for as- 
sessing reclamation success in Western States owing to extreme variability in climate 
and land use. The author advocates making adjustments in the liability period where 
possible and allowing certain types of management during that time without reinitiat- 
ing the liability period. The concepts related in this article could be applied to 
the planning of reclamation activities and the design of revegetation monitoring pro- 
grams specific to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions 
recognized in this evaluation process. 

247. Frizzell, E. M. , J. L. Smith, and K. A. Crofts. Transplanting Native 
Vegetation. Paper in Surface Coal Mining Reclamation Equipment and Techniques. 



122 

Proceedings: Bureau of Mines Technology Transfer Seminars, Evansville, IN, June 3, 
1980, and Denver, CO, June 5, 1980. BuMines IC 8823, 1980, pp. 48-53. 

A transplanting system is described that consists of a front-end loader with a trans- 
plant bucket and a transporter. Several advantages of this system are noted. Native 
revegetation can be moved efficiently and economically over longer distances. The 
system would utilize a conventional piece of mine production equipment, but only on a 
limited basis so as not to impede production activities. Native vegetation could be 
removed from an unmined area, placed in a holding area by the front-end loader, and 
moved by the transporter to the transplant area when convenient . This will allow 
maximum productivity with the front-end loader when it is available, thus providing 
increased flexibility in scheduling the front-end loader. The lower initial and op- 
erational costs of the transporter compared to the front-end loader would reduce 
transplanting costs. All power for the transporter operation other than mobility is 
self-contained, so a truck, large farm tractor, scraper tractor, or other piece of 
reclamation equipment not directly required for mine production could be used to pull 
the transporter. This transplanting system is also described in other publications. 
However, this article provides a good analysis of the operation of the equipment. No 
illustrations are included. The article is pertinent to revegetation planning where 
use of natural vegetation is being considered. 

248. Fuchs , M. R. , and G. R. Cox. Factors Affecting Choice of Plant Species for 
Revegetation on the Hanford Site (U.S. DOE contract DE-AC06-77RL01030, Rockwell Int., 
Richland, WA) . Informal Rep. RHO-LD-155P, Apr. 1983, 29 pp. 

The principal objectives of this study were to determine whether soil conditions 
influenced the establishment of selected native perennial grass species, the extent 
of these species as members of the vegetation community on the Hanford site prior to 
major human influences, and whether these perennial grasses could be established on 
other sites to be reclaimed. Three sites were evaluated. The dominant perennial 
grass species in the vegetative communities at each of these sites were Siberian 
wheatgrass ( Agropyron sibiricum (Wild.) Beauv.) thickspike wheatgrass ( Agropyron 
dasystachyum (Hook.) Scribn.), Indian ricegrass ( Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. & 
Schult.) Ricker) , and Sandberg bluegrass ( Poa secunda Presl.), respectively. The au- 
thors conclude that these species, along with needle grass (Stipa comata) Trin. & 
Rupr.) and sand dropseed (Sporobulus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray), may be successfully 
established for revegetation purposes on the Hanford site. Addition of nitrogen is 
necessary to increase the fertility of the soil. Faster stand establishment may 
be achieved on disturbed sites by reducing competition for moisture and nutrients 
through the control of invading weed species such as Russian thistle ( Salsola kali L. 
var. tenufolia Tausch.) and tumble mustard ( Sisymbrium altissimum L.). The use 
of selective herbicides has been shown to help reduce this competition. Factors re- 
ported to influence the choice of revegetation species include (1) the level of ex- 
changeable magnesium in the soil; (2) soil textural class, gravel percentage, and 
depth to coarse sediments; (3) the presence of an indicator plant species that de- 
fines a habitat; and (4) the soil fertility level. While the results and conclusions 
offered are specific for reclamation of radioactive waste sites at Hanford, WA, they 
are applicable to surface coal mine reclamation in portions of the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions as well. 

249. Gabrielson, F. C, E. A. Cross, and D. K. Bradshaw. The Effects of Fertil- 
izer and Acid Treatment on Plant Growth in Alkaline Spoil. Abstract of paper pre- 
sented at the Meeting of the American Council for Reclamation Research (Univ. AL, 
University, AL, Sept. 18-22, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, pp. 61-64. 

The experiments described by the authors were designed to determine the response of 
lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.) and Kobe lespedeza (Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H & A var. 



123 

Kobe) to acid and fertilizer treatments in alkaline mine spoil. Although parts of 
the abstract were difficult to follow, it was clear that lovegrass responded well to 
13-13-13 fertilizer and to NH4NO3 treatment. 

250. Gabrielson, F. C. , E. A. Cross, D. K. Bradshaw, and 0. L. Carter, Jr. Seed 
Size Influence on Germination and Plant Growth of Kobe Lespedeza and Other Species 
Used for Surface Mine Revegetation. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 3, 1982, pp. 271- 
281. 

This article describes a series of pilot and expanded greenhouse experiments that 
used various spoil-soil substrates and plant species commonly used to revegetate coal 
surface mines in Alabama. In the pilot experiments seeds of soybean ( Glycine max 
(L.) Merr.), Kentucky-31 fescue grass ( Festuca arundinacea Screb.), Kobe lespedeza 
(Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A. var. Kobe), and crimson clover (Trifolium incar- 
natum L.) were divided into three weight classes (small, medium, and large) and grown 
on greenhouse soil, acid mine spoil (pH 4.8), pine stand topsoil, and calcareous 
shale mine spoil (pH 7.8). No soil amendments were used in the pilot study. The re- 
sults of the pilot study showed that survival and aboveground biomass were always 
greater when produced by large seeds as compared to small seeds. Biomass and survi- 
val of medium-sized seeds were also greater than for small seeds, but not signifi- 
cantly greater. The authors suggest that some of the differences found may have been 
due to seed size-substrate interactions. A germination experiment was conducted 
with different sized seeds of Kobe lespedeza, weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula 
(Schrad.) Nees), and crimson clover. The seeds were divided into two groups per 
plant species based on lovegrass larger and smaller than 42 mm, Kobe lespedeza larger 
and smaller than 1.3 mm, and crimson clover larger and smaller than 1.5 mm. For the 
species tested, the larger seed class always had significantly higher germination 
percentages. Because Kobe lespedeza is an important legume component of reclamation 
seed mixtures, three experiments using Kobe lespedeza were conducted on various mine 
substrates (ranging from acid sand with a pH of 4.4 to calcareous shale with a pH of 
7.5) in order to evaluate the advantages of using large seeds relative to spoil-soil 
characteristics and fertilizer and lime treatments. Seed size effects were found to 
differ with substrate and amendment treatment, but overall the larger seeds increased 
plant density and biomass. On spoil material with low cation exchange capacities 
(CEC) the 13-13-13 fertilizer treatment was excessive and caused a significant reduc- 
tion in plant density. Lime plus fertilizer on low-CEC spoils was found to modify 
the effect of fertilizer alone. This article contains a great deal of useful infor- 
mation; however, field results may be different from the results obtained in the 
greenhouse experiments owing to the nonlimiting temperature and moisture regimes used 
in these experiments . 

251. Gavande, S. A. Selecting Cover-Soil for Use in Surface Mine Reclamation 
in East Texas. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, 
pp. 541-545. 

This greenhouse study was conducted to compare the revegetation potential of surface 
s^il and underlying overburden materials sampled from a proposed lignite surface- 
mined area in east Texas. Four composite surface soil samples and 16 mixed overbur- 
den samples representing 4 depth intervals were taken. All soil samples were ana- 
lyzed for major chemical and physical parameters. Common bermudagrass ( Cynodon 
dactylon (L.) Pers.) was selected as the test plant. All soil and overburden sam- 
ples were limed to obtain a pH level of 6.5. Three fertilizer treatments were used: 
(1) a control, (2) 90-60-60 lb/acre of N, P, and K, and (3) 180-60-60 lb/acre of N, 
P, and K. The results of the soil analysis indicate that the overburden mixtures had 
a more favorable texture, which resulted in a greater water and nutrient holding ca- 
pacity, than unmined surface soils. Plant growth on unamended overburden material 



124 

indicated that the mixed overburden was equal to or a little less fertile than the 
surface soil material. When amended, the overburden material from all depths pro- 
duced greater forage yields than surface soil under the same conditions. The author 
concludes that the establishment of vegetation on disturbed land in east Texas, with 
or without topsoil, should present no major problems. 

252. Gebhart, E. J. Trees for Ohio. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 51-52. 

The author discusses the use of trees for reclaiming Ohio surface-mined land. Three 
areas of revegetation that could utilize tree plantings are (1) planting trees on re- 
placed topsoil with erosion control grass cover, (2) revegetation of unreclaimed 
mined lands mined prior to 1972 (pre-Ohio strip mine law), and (3) reforestation of 
barren lands that once had a grass cover. The following recommendations were given: 
(1) the grass species and seeding rates that should be used when grasses are planted 
in combination with trees, (2) the spacing and ntunber of trees planted per acre, 
(3) type of stock, season of planting, and method of planting trees, and (4) tree 
mixtures for acid and alkaline spoils. 

253. George, M. R., C. M. McKell, and S. G. Richardson. The Establishment of 
Cheatgrass (Bromus Tectorum L.) on Spent Oil Shale from the Paraho Process. J. En- 
viron. Qual. , v. 10, No. 2, 1981, pp. 166-169. 

Establishment and growth of cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum L.) was evaluated in a green- 
house study on oil shale from northwestern Colorado that had been treated by the 
Paraho retorting process. The objectives of the study were to (1) study the 
emergence and growth of cheatgrass in soil, in soil mixed with untreated Paraho spent 
oil shale, and in spent shale that was either leached, treated with 10 pet H2SO4, 
covered with soil, or mixed with soil, and (2) study the emergence and seedling 
growth of cheatgrass on Paraho spent oil shale that was fertilized with ammonium ni- 
trate and triple superphosphate. Fertilizer rates were 0, 28, and 56 kg/ha N and 0, 
24.4, and 48.8 kg/ha P. Cheatgrass emerged sooner, had greater height, produced more 
biomass , and survived to produce seed when the treatment was soil alone or if the 
spent shale had been covered with soil material. When compared to spent shale alone, 
cheatgrass establishment was more successful when soil and spent shale were mixed. 
The authors conclude that, by covering spent shale with a soil layer or by mixing 
soil and shale together, successful cheatgrass establishment is possible. However, 
field studies are needed to verify these results. 

254. Gerken, H. J., Jr., and A. L. Eller, Jr. Beef Production From Forage Pro- 
duced on Reclaimed Surface Mined Land. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, 
Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 203-206. 

This study was conducted to determine the productivity of beef cows that grazed on 
sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours) G. Don) and KY-31 tall fescue ( Fes- 
tuca arundinacea Schreb.), establish optimum management practices, and identify po- 
tential problems affecting cow productivity on reclaimed mine land. This study was 
conducted near Norton, VA. Twenty-five mature Angus X Hereford cows with calves were 
placed on 20 hectares of sericea lespedeza - KY-31 fescue pasture where the cows and 
calves grazed from June through November. After weaning the cows were moved to a 
32-hectare area and wintered on accumulated fescue from December through April. At 
weaning it was determined that all cows were pregnant, and all cows calved between 
early March and early April. The cows and calves were returned to the initial 20- 
hectare grazing area, and a Polled Hereford bull was placed with the herd to initiate 
a new breeding season. By October all cows were again pregnant. The results of the 
study indicate that cows can effectively use sericea lespedeza and other forages 
grown on reclaimed mine land to maintain weight, reproduce satisfactorily, and wean 



125 

calves with acceptable weaning weights. No health or nutritional problems were en- 
countered. Grazing also proved to be an effective way of managing sericea lespedeza 
in order to enhance the growth of other forages . Accumulated forages on surface- 
mined land also provided much of the winter feed required by pregnant cows . The au- 
thors conclude that the forages are available on revegetated surface-mined lands for 
beef production, and if properly managed for beef production these acreages could 
provide an acceptable economic return to the owner. 

255. Gifford, G. F., and G. E. Hart. A Classification of Utah Mine Wastes. Edge: 
Natural Resouces/People, v. 3, No. 1, 1980, pp. 8-14. 

The article presents a preliminary system of classification for Utah mine wastes 
based on surface hydrologic characteristics. The principal types of mining consid- 
ered in the study included gold, silver, lead, zinc, fire clay, brick clay, lime- 
stone, fluorspar, phosphate, coal, copper, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, and berylli- 
um. The classification system developed is intended for use in rating mine spoils 
for potential surface hydrologic limitations to revegetation. While this classifica- 
tion may be specific for Utah, the approach is valid for development of similar clas- 
sification systems in other geographic areas. 

256. Gilley, J. E. Runoff and Erosion Characteristics of a Revegetated Surface 
Mined Site in Western North Dakota. ND Farm Res., v. 37, No. 6, May 1980, pp. 17- 
20. 

This article reports the results of a study in which a rainfall simulator was used 
to measure runoff and soil loss from undisturbed, harvested, and bare and surface- 
mulched treatments on a revegetated surface mined site near Zap, ND. The greatest 
soil losses were measured on the bare soil treatment. The least soil loss was exper- 
ienced on the undisturbed plots. Application of 0.5 ton/acre surface straw mulch 
reduced erosion by 66 pet over the bare soil condition. The results and discussion 
contained in this article could apply to major portions of the Northern Great Plains 
and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

257. Gilley, J. E. , G. W. Gee, A. Bauer, W. 0. Willis, and R. A. Young. Runoff 
and Erosion Characteristics of Surface-Mined Sites in Western North Dakota. Trans. 
ASAE, V. 20, No. 4, 1977, pp. 697-700, 704. 

This study was conducted to measure runoff and erosion from native rangeland (refer- 
ence area), spoil, and topsoil sites in North Dakota. The rangeland served as a pre- 
mined condition and was compared to cultivated and noncultivated spoil and topsoiled 
mine sites. Rainfall events were simulated by a rainulator. Sediment production 
averaged 74,000 kg/ha for the bare topsoil sites, 18,000 kg/ha for the bare spoil 
sites, and 200 kg/ha for the rangeland. By applying wheat straw mulch at a rate of 
4,500 kg/ha, soil losses were reduced by 84 pet on the spoil and 93 pet on the top- 
soil sites. For the simulated rainfall, runoff averaged 60 and 70 pet of the rain- 
fall applied on the bare topsoil and spoil treatments, respectively. Runoff only 
averaged 12 pet on the rangeland site. These results indicate the need for suitable 
management practices on bare topsoil and spoil material to keep erosion and runoff 
levels within acceptable limits. 

258. Gist, C. S., E. Clebsch, R. McCord, D. Wilkin, and D. Dietz. A Handbook for 
the Development of Terrestrial Monitoring Programs for Coal Mine Reclamation. Oak 
Ridge Assoc. Univ., Oak Ridge, TN, Tech. Rep. ORAU-144, July 1978, 207 pp. 

This is a handbook for the design of terrestrial environmental monitoring programs 
for surface coal mining. It provides an excellent example for the application of 
decision-making theory in developing environmental monitoring programs. The Newman- 
Kuels multiple range test is applied to determine the most critical and cost ef- 
fective parameters to be monitored. These parameters are considered in formulating 



126 

alternatives for the design of a monitoring program. The alternatives thus devel- 
oped are ranked by the Decision Alternative Rational Evaluation (DARE) method. In 
this way the responses from individuals involved in the decision-making process are 
evaluated. 

259. Glazier, R. C, R. W. Nelson, and W. J. Logan. Planning for Mine Cut Lakes. 
Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 533-540. 

The authors discuss the development of mine cuts into permanent water impoundments. 
When compared to backfilling costs necessary to restore premining topography and land 
use, mine cut lakes are a feasible alternative postmining land use. Mine cut lakes 
can be planned as a valuable resource for fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, and 
water supply (for example, irrigation). The key to the use of these water impound- 
ments is careful planning and development of lake and watershed features aimed 
at producing physical, chemical, and biological characteristics suitable for the in- 
tended or potential uses. 

260. Glenn-Lewin, D. C. Natural Revegetation of Acid Coal Spoils in Southeast 
Iowa. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on the Int. 
Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). 
Pergamon, 1979, pp. 568-575. 

Descriptions and quantitative analyses are given for natural revegetation of aban- 
doned coal strip mine spoils in southeastern Iowa. Vegetation reestablishment by 
natural means resulted in a complex of vegetation characteristics rather than a uni- 
form successional sequence. Substrate acidity was an important factor controlling 
initial colonization. Approximately 40 to 50 pet of the oldest spoils studied remain 
unvegetated due to low substrate acidity. The results reported from this study are 
applicable to reclamation planning in the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

261. Goodman, S. D. , T. F. Koppe, and R. J. Hutnik. Revegetation of Strip-Mine 
Spoils With Containerized Tree Seedlings. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining 
and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). 
Nat. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 16-19. 

The study reported in this paper evaluated the survival of eight species of 1-year- 
old conifer seedlings grown in various types of containers. Noncontainerized 2-year- 
old nursery stock were planted in a bare-root condition as a control. Three types of 
mineland sites were used in the study: Pennsylvania toxic sites, Pennsylvania cur- 
rent reclamation sites, and Appalachia current reclamation sites (West Virginia, 
Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee). Based on the results obtained from the first growing 
season, the 2-year-old commercial bare-root stock was superior to one-year-old con- 
tainerized conifer seedlings on a variety of surface-mined sites. Severe weather 
conditions hampered the study and complicated evaluation of the results. Continued 
superiority of the 2-year-old bare-root stock was uncertain. This study may be 
of interest to individuals involved in planning reclamation activities in the East- 
ern Coal Mining Region. However, because of the short time period of the study and 
the admitted weather problems, care should be exercised in directly applying these 
results. 

262. Gosz, J. R. , L. Barton, and L. D. Potter. An Evaluation of New Mexico Humate 
Deposits for Restoration of Mine Spoils. Ch. in The Reclamation of Disturbed Arid 
Lands. Univ. NM Press, 1978, pp. 180-188. 

The effects of hianate and mulch applications were evaluated at the Jackpile ura- 
nium mine near Laguna, NM. The specific objectives were to evaluate the microbial 
and mineral nutrient qualities of humates and their effects on mine spoils, and to 
evaluate the effects of humates on plant growth and quality of forage of both native 



127 

and introduced plants. Four humate application rates were used: 0, 714, 3,569, and 
7,138 kg/ha. On a second set of plots barley mulch (1,695 kg/ha) was added along 
with humate. Chemical analyses showed that organic matter, nitrogen, zinc, and phos- 
phorus contents were higher in the humate than in the native soil (Tres Hermanos 
Sandstone), which had a higher calcium concentration than the humate. Humate had 
both a stimulatory and an inhibitory effect on soil microbes. Soil fungi were stimu- 
lated by humate application rates of 714 to 3,569 kg/ha. Soil bacteria and fungi had 
their highest counts when humate was applied at 714 kg/ha. Application rates higher 
than this reduced microbe counts. The application of mulch on humate did not have a 
statistically significant effect on plant growth. Potassium was the only element af- 
fected by humate application; barley tissue analysis showed a marked decrease in 
potassium concentration. The authors concluded that there is a need to continue to 
evaluate the effects of humate on plant growth, particularly for the potential accu- 
mulation of metals by plants. 

263. Gough, L. P. Regional Investigations of Soil and Overburden Analysis and 
Plant Uptake of Metals. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining 
and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State 
Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 
1984, pp. 156-171. 

This paper reports the results of regional studies on the bioavailability of metals 
at native and disturbed sites in the Fort Union, Powder River, and Green River coal 
regions. Correlations between Cu, Fe, and Zn in plants and extractable and total 
levels in native A- and C-horizons of soil were occasionally significant. A simple 
linear model generally did not provide an adequate representation of element uptake 
by plants. Stepwise linear multiple regression analysis incorporating several soil 
chemical and physical parameters improved predictive capabilities of the models but 
accounted for more than 54 pet of the variability in the data. Soil pH was the most 
important variable relating soil chemistry to plant chemistry. This paper is perti- 
nent to reclamation planning throughout the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain 
Coal Mining Regions. 

264. Gough, L. P., and R. C. Severson. Rehabilitation Materials From Surface Coal 
Mines in Western U.S.A. II. Biogeochemistry of Wheatgrass , Alfalfa, and Fourwing 
Saltbush. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 2, 1983, pp. 103-122. 

This research was conducted to obtain element concentration data on species commonly 
used for reclamation on 11 coal mines in Wyoming, Colorado, North Dakota, and Mon- 
tana. The following species were sampled at least once at each mine: crested wheat- 
grass ( Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), slender wheatgrass ( Agropyron trachycaulum 
(Link) Malte) , intermediate wheatgrass ( Agropyron intermedium (Host) Beauv.), alfalfa 
( Medicago sativa L.), and fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). Con- 
centrations of up to 32 to 34 elements were determined for each species . The data 
collected were to provide a basis for the assessment of the variability in the con- 
centration of elements in similar species among the mines; an assessment of the vari- 
ability in element concentration of a species within a mine; and an evaluation of the 
potential phytotoxicity, animal forage deficiency, or forage toxicity hazard. The 
differences in element concentrations among mines using the same species reflected 
the variability of the mine environment. The concentrations of elements in the 
wheatgrass species from all the mines tested were below that considered toxic to 
plants or animals. Phosphorus and magnesium concentrations in the wheatgrasses were 
consistently below the critical dietary levels for cattle. Alfalfa from six mines in 
three States had uniform concentrations of elements. However, variability among the 
mines was large for aluminum, calcium, lithium, and sodium. At one North Dakota mine 
the boron concentration may have been phytotoxic in alfalfa. Molybdenum concentra- 
tions in alfalfa were potentially toxic to grazing cattle at a Montana and a North 



128 

Dakota mine. The boron concentration of fourwing saltbush was potentially phytotoxic 
at a Wyoming site. 

265. Gozon, J. S. , C. J. Konya, S. S. LuKovie, R. G. Lundquist, and J. Olah. 
Mined Land Reclamation by Biological Reactivation. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 
1982. Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 19-26. 

The author describes a new method of reclamation developed in Europe that restores 
land to full productivity within 2 years without topsoil replacement. The technique 
is called biological reactivation (BR) and it reestablishes within 1 year following 
mining the required biological balance between microbes, enzymes, and trace elements. 
The feasibilty of using the BR process in the United States was evaluated. The phys- 
ical and chemical parameters of 140 spoil samples from 10 surface mining operations 
were characterized. Results indicate fhat the BR technology could be effectively ap- 
plied to the areas tested in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. There are several advan- 
tages to the BR system; for instance, there is no need to use conventional recla- 
mation techniques such as selective stripping, storage of material, replacement of 
topsoil, or the use of pioneer plant species. Another advantage is that the BR tech- 
nique reduces reclamation costs on prime farmland by 90 to 95 pet when compared to 
conventional U.S. reclamation techniques. The authors state that the second year af- 
ter the BR technique has been used, a grain or vegetable yield identical with the 
original agricultural lands can be expected. 

266. Grandt , A. F. Mined-Land Reclamation in the Interior Coal Province. J. Soil 
Water Conserv., Mar. -Apr. 1978, pp. 62-68. 

This article characterizes surface mining rules and regulations, mining techniques, 
land-use capabilities, and plant species used to achieve a particular land use in the 
Interior Coal Province prior to the passage of the Surface Mining Control and Recla- 
mation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87). The author provides a good general descrip- 
tion of what mining and reclamation involve, including cost and planning, for those 
who have not had exposure to the industry. A section is included on postmining land 
use. All the examples given are beneficial and productive uses of the reclaimed land 
prior to 1977. The author concludes that with the passage of Public Law 95-87, "rec- 
lamation is a new ball game." 

267. Grandt, A. F. Prime Farmland — Is Restoration a Reality? Min. Congr. J., 
Sept. 1982, pp. 25-30. 

The author provides the results of several studies that reveal some row crop yields 
comparable to those from relevant reference areas on "prime farmland." While the ar- 
ticle seems to speak to prime farmland reclamation in a national sense, the studies 
reported were conducted in the Midwest (Interior) coal region. The results reported 
would be of value for comparative studies and planning. 

268. Grandt, A. F. Problems in Reclaiming Farmland in Illinois. Min. Eng. (NY), 
Sept. 1981, pp. 1348-1350. 

This article offers excellent reviews of the salient points of the Surface Mining 
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 and the 1971 Illinois Surface Mined Land Conser- 
vation and Reclamation Act, as well as the definition of "prime farmland" by the U.S. 
Soil Conservation Service in 7 CFR 657 (Federal Register, V. 4 No. 21). In addition, 
the author relates the results of a study designed to measure the effects of topsoil 
on graded surface-mined land and to compare corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybean ( Glycine 
max (L.) Merr) yields on original soil and graded surface-mined lands through the 
incorporation of a "reference area" that meets the criteria developed by the Rules 
and Regulations of Public Law 95-87. An inital settling period for newly reclaimed 
land is recommended, during which legume-grass mixtures are used to facilitate the 



129 

stabilization of the chemical, physical, and biological factors of the soil prior to 
more traditional rotational cropping systems. 

269. Grandt, A. F. Reclaiming Mined Land In Illinois for Row Crop Production. J. 
Soil Water Conserv., v. 33, No. 5, 1978, pp. 242-244. 

The author discusses the feasibility of reclaiming Illinois surface-mined lands for 
row crop production. Data are presented from studies conducted on nontopsoiled sites 
during the late 1940' s to early 1960's. The yields obtained from these studies 
equalled or exceeded the county averages at the time the experiments were conducted. 
A study was then described where a topsoiled and a graded spoil were continuously 
cropped with corn (Zea mays L.) and the yields obtained were compared to the yields 
of an unmined Muscatine silt loam (prime farmland) in Knox County, IL. The results 
of this study suggested that continuous row crops should not be grown on recently 
reconstructed mine land. Corn yields on the topsoiled area remained constant for 3 
years and exceeded the yields for the Muscatine silt loam under basic levels of man- 
agement. However, under high levels of management the topsoiled corn yields were 15 
to 20 pet short of the yields obtained on unmined land. On the graded spoil, corn 
yields dropped substantially over the 3 years and never equalled the yields obtained 
on the topsoiled or unmined areas. An ongoing study in Randolph County, IL was also 
described by the author. Again, the corn yields obtained were above that predicted 
for a basic level of management but below that predicted for a high level of manage- 
ment. The author concludes that newly mined lands should not be immediately planted 
to corn. A legume-grass mixture should be seeded the first few years to allow the 
chemical, physical, and biological aspects of the replaced topsoil to stabilize. 
Following this period, row crops, such as corn and soybeans, can be grown success- 
fully on land that has been stripmined for coal. 

270. Grandt, A. F. Selection, Establishment, and Utilization of Plant Materials 
for Multiple Postmining Land Use. A Study Guide for a Mini-Course Taught at the 1983 
National Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lex- 
ington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983) Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, 85 pp. 

This manual contains information on the reestablishment of vegetative cover on mined 
land in the Eastern United States for multiple post-mining land use. Information is 
given on vegetation types (grasses, f orbs , and woody plants), selection of plant ma- 
terials, establishment of vegetation (soil testing and the soil amendments needed), 
planting, and maintenance. The majority of the manual contains useful information on 
grass, forb, and, shrub species characteristics. 

271. Graves, D. H. , and S. B. Carpenter. Use of Hardwood Bark in Stripmine Recla- 
mation. Paper in Organic and Fuel Uses for Bark and Wood Residues (Bark and Resi- 
due Tech. Sess., For. Product Res. Soc. , Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, 1979, 
and Boston, MA, 1980). For. Prod. Res. Soc, Madison, WI, Proc. No. P-80-27, 1980, 
pp. 6-12. 

The authors review a number of studies being conducted by the University of Kentucky 
that compare various mulching systems with the use of bark mulch to evaluate vegeta- 
tive responses and microclimate modification. Bark mulching resulted in higher soil 
moisture content compared with straw or water-borne fiber mulches. Bark mulch was 
the warmest mulch during the winter and was only slightly warmer than straw during 
the hot portion of the growing season. Mixtures of bark and organic material were 
superior mulches for the development of total ground cover. Bark-based mulches 
resulted in rapid establishment of legumes. Alternatively, water-based mulches 
resulted in greater establishment of grass. Direct seeding of heavy seed species 
such as oaks (Quercus spp.), yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra Marsh.), and Chinese 
chestnut ( Castanea mollissima BT.) respond favorably to bark and bark-mixture 
mulches. Interim results indicate that bark mulch improves the initial survival of 



130 

both bare-root and containerized seedlings. A brief discussion of recent economic 
analyses indicate that bark mulching compares favorably with hydro mulching or with 
hay or straw mulching and is less expensive than mulching with composted municipal 
waste. The intent of the presentation was to relate current research trends. How- 
ever, the information presented will be helpful in planning revegetation efforts in 
major portions of the Eastern Coal Mining Region, as well as the eastern portion of 
the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

272. Graves, D. H. , S. B. Carpenter, and R. F. Wittwer. Direct-Seeding of Commer- 
cial Trees on Surface Mine Spoil. U.S. EPA, EPA-600/ 7-80-073, Apr. 1980, 14 pp. 

The potential for direct seeding of small-seeded and large-seeded tree species on 
minespoils in eastern Kentucky was evaluated. The study combined three directional 
aspects, four types of mulch applications, two levels of fertilizer application, and 
two herbaceous vegetation seeding rates as treatments. The small-seeded species used 
were Paulownia ( Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steud.) and European black alder ( Alnus 
glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.). The three large-seeded species used in the study were 
northern red oak ( Quercus rubra L.), pin oak ( Quercus palustris Muenchh.), and bur 
oak ( Quercus macrocarpa Michx.). Survival of the large-seeded species was better 
than that of the small-seeded species. Initial germination for all five species was 
significantly higher on the warmer, south-facing aspect of the spoil. Mulching in- 
creased the survival rate and growth for all species . The best survival rates were 
obtained with composted municipal sewage sludge. The most height increase was ob- 
tained with bark-manure mulch. Fertilizer decreased survival and increased height 
growth. Competition from herbaceous ground cover reduced germination more than any 
other variable. Ground cover also reduced height growth. The results and discus- 
sion presented in this publication are relevant to the establishment of deciduous 
tree species as part of revegetation efforts on surface-mined land in the Eastern 
Coal Mining Region. 

273. Greater Egypt Regional Planning and Development Commission. Erosion Poten- 
tial of Reclaimed Agricultural Lands in Perry County (Rep. GERPDC-82-617, Carbondale, 
XL). U.S. EPA Grant POO 5623-01, NTIS PC A04/MF AOl, July 1982, 66 pp. 

The commission assigned soil loss estimates via the Universal Soil Loss Equation to 
1,300 acres of land reclaimed by four mining companies using row crops. Tables were 
prepared indicating the level of compliance obtained with nine hypothetical crop ro- 
tation and tillage method combinations, based on the Perry County, IL erosion central 
standards for 1995. State-of-the-art soil management methods applied to reclaimed 
soils were shown to be adequate for acceptable sediment and erosion control. 

274. Green, B. B. Biological Aspects of Surface Coal Mine Reclamation, Black Mesa 
and San Juan Basin. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/AA-10, Aug. 1977, 56 pp. 

This report discusses case study reclamation data from the Black Mesa Mine in Arizona 
and the Navajo Mine in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico. Edaphic factors, such 
as soil characteristics, soil amendments, and topsoil storage and handling, are 
discussed, along with data on the soils and their characteristics. The vegetative 
communities at the minesites are described, along with cover and production data. 
Previous reclamation practices at the mines are briefly outlined, as is ongoing re- 
search. This is a good introduction to reclamation problems and practices in the 
southwestern coal mining areas. 

275. Green, J. E., and D. H. Graves. Planning for Postmining Land Use. Paper in 
1981 Symposium on Surface Mining Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 171-173. 

This is a general article which presents successful reclamation projects that the 
authors believe could be used as models for reclamation specialists. Coal regions 



131 

are characterized by their natural environmental qualities, and the postmining land 
uses are listed by type. Pastureland and grazingland were not included in this 
presentation. 

276. Greenslade, W. M. Protecting Alluvial Valley Floors. Dames & Moore Eng. 
Bull., No. 52, Aug. 1980, pp. 27-32. 

This article provides a good review of the portions of the Surface Mining Control and 
Reclamation Act of 1977 that pertain to alluvial valley floors in the Western United 
States. The author discusses potential impacts and general mitigative approaches of 
mining near alluvial valley floors. 

277. Groenewold, G. H. , and B. W. Rehm. Instability of Contoured Surface Mined 
Landscapes in the Northern Great Plains: Causes and Implications. Reclam. Reveg. 
Res., V. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. 162-176. 

The focus of this research was on the stability characteristics of postmining land- 
scapes at the Indian Head Mine in western North Dakota. Three types of instabil- 
ity have been observed in reclaimed postmining landscapes: (1) areawide settling, 
(2) localized subsidence or collapse, and (3) piping. The instrumentation in this 
study was designed to monitor the movement of surface materials and the hydrologic 
conditions at the site. Concrete survey markers were utilized to monitor both hori- 
zontal and vertical displacements. Water levels in piezometers were monitored to de- 
termine the hydraulic conductivity of the spoils. Gamma-gamma and gamma-density logs 
were obtained for each piezometer to delineate blocky and poorly consolidated zones 
in the spoils . Monitoring of the markers indicated that very little spoil movement 
had occurred; maximum vertical displacement did not exceed 5 in and no significant 
horizontal displacement was found. The authors state that areawide settlement oc- 
curred prior to instrumentation. Piezometer data indicated that the base of the 
spoils are saturated over 70 pet of the site. The results of this study indicate 
that the design of stable postmining landscapes require the integration of the fol- 
lowing factors: (1) detailed knowledge of the distribution of overburden materials 
with emphasis on the delineation of highly sodic sediments, (2) proper equipment se- 
lection, and (3) consideration of climatic factors. 

278. Grogan, S., C. L. Caldwell, 0. J. Estrada, and W. Skeet. Conventional Wisdom 
in 1975 and the Real World in 1978 in Surface Mine Reclamation at the Navajo Mine. 
Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Developent, Volume 1 (based on the Int. Congr. for 
Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 
1979, pp. 427-430. 

The authors describe the evolution of the reclamation program at the Navajo Mine op- 
erated by Utah International, Inc., in northwestern New Mexico on the Navajo Indian 
Reservation. The "conventional wisdom" of 1975, under which the original mine plan 
including the reclamation program was devised, is compared to the reclamation process 
as it existed in 1977. Revegetation problems and their potential solutions are dis- 
cussed. Much of the information is covered in a cursory manner. However, the paper 
may be of interest to individuals concerned with reclamation planning in the southern 
portions of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Region. 

279. Grossnickle, S. C. , and C. P. Reid. The Use of Ectomycorrhizal Conifer Seed- 
lings in the Revegetation of a High Elevation Mine Site. Can. J. For. Res., v. 12, 
1982, pp. 354-361. 

This article reports the results of a combined greenhouse and field study that evalu- 
ated the potential use of ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculated conifers in high-elevation 
mine site revegetation. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.), limber pine (Pinus 
f lexlis James), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry), were inoculated 
with the ectomycorrhizal fungi Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker & Couch. , Suillus 



132 

granulatus (L. exfr.) Kuntze, and Cenococcum geophilum Fr. These, along with uninoc- 
ulated control seedlings , were grown in a greenhouse for 8 months . Top height , diam- 
eter, and seedling total dry weight were greater for those conifers inoculated with 
S. granulatus and the control. These were then outplanted on a high-elevation molyb- 
denum tailing pond covered with deep-mine waste rock at a site near Empire, CO. Four 
fertilizer treatments together with sewage sludge and wood chips were incorporated 
into the study. After 4 years in the field, S^, granulatus- inoculated seedlings 
showed greater height growth. Greater height growth was obtained with the sewage 
sludge and wood-chip treatment than with the three treatments of combined inorganic N 
and P, P alone, and no fertilization. While this article is not directly related to 
revegetation of surface coal mines , the general paucity of mycorrhizal studies in the 
literature at this time necessitates inclusion of articles such as this that provide 
results that may find application in surface coal mine reclamation. For the evalua- 
tion process the article has been listed under the Rocky Mounain Coal Mining Region. 
However, the article adds to the basic knowlege of mycorrhizal associations and tech- 
niques for assessing them. As such, the article is nonregional. 

280. Grove, J. H. , and V. P. Evangelou. Colloid Exchange Phase Dynamics and Sa- 
line Spoil Management. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedi- 
mentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1982, pp. 387-390. 

The value of added colloid exchangers in reducing soluble salt levels in limed, for- 
merly acid, pyritic coal spoil from western Kentucky was evaluated. Two different 
experiments were conducted using the limed spoil. In the first experiment 1 g each 
of sand, topsoil, subsoil, aluminum-saturated soil clay, calcium-saturated soil clay, 
and hydrogen-saturated cation exchange resin (AG 50W-X10), and 0.5 g each of wheat 
straw, corn stalks, aluminum-saturated peat, and calcium-saturated peat were added to 
10 g of limed spoil material. In the second experiment 5 g of each of the above ex- 
changers (except for wheat straw and corn stalks) were mixed with 5 g of the limed 
spoil material. In each experiment (amendment to spoil ratios of 1:20, 1:10, and 
1:1) the mixtures were suspended in water and changes in solution chemistry (pH, Ca, 
Mg) were determined relative to an inert sand control mixture. In experiment 1 the 
corn stalks and wheat straw caused solution Ca and Mg to rise above control lev- 
els. This is probably due to a chelating action of soluble organic anions released 
from these materials. All other amendments reduced soluble Mg levels, with aluminum- 
saturated exchangers being more effective than the calcium-saturated materials. The 
ion-exchange resin was the most effective at controlling soluble salts. By increas- 
ing the ratio of amendment to spoil from 1:10 to 1:1, the average solution Ca and Mg 
removed increased from 5.6 pet to 34.9 pet. Even though the exchanger materials may 
not reclaim the entire soil profile, they do bring about a better seed zone chemical 
environment, which should accelerate vegetation establishment. 

281. Grove, J. H. , and V. P. Evangelou. Modeling Water Quality During Salty Spoil 
Suspension Events. Paper in 1983 SjTnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentol- 
ogy, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1983, pp. 349-353. 

The authors describe a model used to predict the solution phase chemistry of sulfate- 
dominated colloid systems; it had been tested on pyritic spoil from western Kentucky 
that had been amended with caleitic and magnesitie liming materials. Liming produced 
spoils with a wide range of sulfate chemistry. Lime and unlimed spoil response to 
wetting was determined using water-to-spoil ratios of 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, and 20:1. Solu- 
ble cations (calcium and magnesium) in the solution phase were then determined. The 
suspensions ranged widely in their solution phase composition and properties. An 
evaluation was made of the ability of the model to predict solution composition 
upon dilution (wetting) or concentration (drying) of the solution. It was found that 



133 

predicting the magnesium concentration was dependent on an estimate of the expansion 
of the exchange phase on clay colloid surfaces or changes in the selectivity of ad- 
sorption between calcium and magnesium with increasing salt strength. The authors 
conclude that the modeling of the three-phase system (solution, adsorbed, and solid) 
with salts of different solubilities is dependent on the interaction of the colloid- 
exchange phase with the surroundings . 

282. Grove, J. H. , and V. P. Evangelou. The Role of Lime in Salty Spoil Genesis. 
Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 1-4. 

This incubation study was conducted to determine the quantity, type, and rate of sul- 
fate salt release from acid pyritic spoil from western Kentucky as affected by lime 
rate and source. The study was conducted with 500-g portions of spoil and both cal- 
citic and dolomitic limes. The lime rates used were 0, 14.4 meq/lOO g (one-half the 
lime requirement for potential acidity control), and 28.8 meq/lOO g (full lime re- 
quirement for potential acidity control. Amended spoils were maintained at 30° C and 
100-cm moisture tension. Spoils were sampled 1, 9, and 16 weeks after liming, and 
air-dried; soluble-salt formation was determined by suspending a sample in water at 
a soil solution ratio of 1:20 for 2 h. The pH of unamended spoils dropped quickly, 
from 4.8 to 3.2 after 9 weeks of incubation. Of the other treatments only dolomite, 
applied at half the lime requirement, failed to maintain the initial pH level. Solu- 
ble magnesiL sulfate doubled in the unlimed spoils between weeks 1 and 16. How- 
ever, all limo-amended spoils, except for the highest rate of calcitic lime, released 
larger quantities of soluble salts than unamended spoil material. Dolomite-amended 
spoils generated twice as much magnesium salt as calcite-amended spoils. Calcite 
lime, therefore, was the most effective at reducing the soluble magnesium release. 
When used at the recommended rate, calcite lime reduced salt genesis. The authors 
recommended that dolomite not be used on sandy spoils with high pyrite content . 

283. Guernsey, J. L., L. A. Brown, and A. 0. Perry. Integrated Mined-Area Recla- 
mation and Land Use Planning. A Case Study of Surface Mining and Reclamation Plan- 
ning: Georgia Kaolin Company Clay Mines, Washington County, Georgia. Volume 3C in 
Integrated Mined-Area Reclamation and Land Use Planning. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/ 
EMR-1, V. 3C, Feb. 1978, 122 pp. 

This report is one in a 10-volume series prepared by the Energy and Environmental 
Systems Division of Argonne National Laboratory and the Resource and Land Investiga- 
tions (RALI) Program of the U.S. Department of Interior under the sponsorship of the 
U.S. Geological Survey. The reclamation practices of Georgia Kaolin's American In- 
dustrial Clay Co. division, a kaolin producer centered in Twiggs, Washington, and 
Wilkinson Counties, are examined in this case study. The mining of kaolin in Georgia 
illustrates the effects of mining and reclamation of lands disturbed by surface min- 
ing typical of this area. Reclamation of these mined lands is regulated in accord- 
ance with the Georgia Surface Mining Act of 1968. The environmental disturbances and 
procedures used in reclaiming the mined lands are reviewed, and implications for 
planners are noted. Several aspects of the reclamation work are reviewed, including 
spoil characterization, vegetative species performance, operational cost, and the 
development of a reclamation plan. This document specifically addresses reclamation 
of kaolin-mined lands in Georgia. However, with judicious consideration the informa- 
tion relayed by this document might be applied to the planning of reclamation activ- 
ities over a broader geographical area, including portions of the Eastern and Gulf 
Coast Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

284. Guernsey, J. L. , M. E. Tiller, and J. R. LaFevers. Integrated Mined-Area 
Reclamation and Land Use Planning. A Case Study of Surface Mining and Reclamation 
Planning: Area Strip Coal Mining, Peabody Universal Mine, Universal, Indiana. Ar- 
gonne Natl. Lab., ANL/EMR-1, v. 3D, Feb. 1977, 54 pp. 



134 

This study is concerned with land reclamation at Peabody Coal Co.'s Universal Mine 
near Terre Haute, IN. This site was chosen because it posseses many of the charac- 
teristics common to both midwestern and western coal mines. Included in the paper 
are sections on the physiographic setting, climate, hydrology, soil, and land use of 
west-central Indiana. There is also a section on the history of mining and reclama- 
tion along with operation procedures used at Universal Mine. The objectives of the 
reclamation operation at Universal Mine are grading the topsoil, providing water im- 
poundments and access roads, and reestablishing a vegetative cover. Restoring the 
land to row crop production is the most common form of interim and future land use in 
the area. Grasses and legumes are the plant species most often used; no tree plant- 
ings have been included in the reclamation efforts at Universal Mine. Estimated rec- 
lamation costs are included in this paper. Long-range "higher uses" for the area in- 
clude the possible development of the area for housing and recreation sites due to 
the demand for these types of land use in the Terre Haute area. The authors feel 
that a well-designed reclamation plan should include both an interim and long-range 
plan. By linking the two in an orderly manner, disturbed land would be out of pro- 
duction for a minimum period before it is brought to its highest possible long-term 
use. 

285. Guldin, R. W. , and J. P. Barnett (eds.). Proceedings of the Southern Con- 
tainerized Forest Tree Seedling Conference (Savannah, GA, Aug. 25-27, 1981). U.S. 
For. Ser. South. For. Exp. Sta. , New Orleans, LA, GTR-SO-37 , June 1982, 160 pp. 

This publication contains numerous research papers specifically dealing with the use 
of containerized tree seedlings for reestablishment of trees in the Southeastern 
United States. Major topics covered by these papers include (1) the selection of ap- 
propriate containers, (2) nursery production practices, (3) planting methods and 
stand establishment techniques, and (4) field performance of container-grown seed- 
lings. Individuals concerned with reestablishmennt of tree species on land disturbed 
by surface coal mining will find this publication a valuable reference. Information 
presented is primarily relevant to the southern half of the Eastern and the western 
portion of the Gulf Coast Coal Mining Regions. 

286. Gulliford, J. B. Incorporating Orphaned Mine Spoil Reclamation Into the Min- 
ing Plan. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 1 (based on the 
Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 
1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 353-357. 

This paper discusses the results of a study to incorporate orphaned mined land into 
current surface coal mine reclamation adjacent to these abandoned spoils. The author 
reports that such efforts are economically feasible but contingent on the ability 
to handle toxic material at the site, on the availability of nontoxic overburden to 
topsoil leveled mine spoils, and on common ownership of the land to be mined and re- 
claimed. The study was conducted in south-central Iowa. However, the approach 
could probably find application in other coal mining areas of the United States as 
well. 

287. Hale, A. M. Reclamation in the Eastern U.S. Dames & Moore Eng. Bull., No. 
52, Aug. 1980, pp. 33-40. 

The author provides a general and relatively nontechnical review of reclamation and 
revegetation efforts on surface-coal-mined lands in the Eastern and Interior Coal 
Mining Regions. Postmining land use defines the direction that all other factors 
in the reclamation program must take. Topics considered in the article include 
(1) the importance and use of overburden analyses, (2) surface and ground water 
analyses, (3) soil analyses and vegetation inventories, (4) topsoil stockpiling and 
treatment, (5) consideration of localized climatic conditions, and (6) the establish- 
ment and maintenance of vegetation. The article provides good background information 



135 

that could be helpful to individuals with little or no experience in mineland 
reclamation. 

288. Hall, A., and W. A. Berg. Prediction of the Sodium Hazard in Coal Mine Over- 
burden. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 3, 1983, pp. 191-204. 

This research was conducted to determine the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) -exchange- 
able sodium percentage (ESP) relationship in samples of fresh and weathered overbur- 
den collected from North Dakota and Colorado. These relationships were then compared 
to the SAR-ESP relationship commonly used to predict possible sodium problems in 
soils. The overburden samples collected were subjected to four different weather- 
ing treatments for 16, 64, or 224 days. The weather treatments used consisted of 
(1) air-dry, (2) field capacity, (3) wet-dry, and (4) cropped. With weathering there 
were statistically significant decreases in the ESP and SAR with corresponding in- 
creases in soluble calcium. The most effective treatment in reducing sodicity was 
the wet-dry weathering treatment. It was found that the ESP in most of the samples 
taken was overestimated from measured SAR values when the SAR-ESP relationship (de- 
veloped by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory) was used. The authors recommend that ESP 
should be determined on overburden samples that have SAR values approaching problem 
levels. 

289. Hall, G. F. Classification of Five Types of Strip Mine Spoil and Implica- 
tions for Reclamation. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation 
(NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Nat. Coal Assoc, 
and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 1-3. 

This paper describes five soil series proposed during soil mapping in Belmont and 
Noble Counties, OH, that are made up of strip mine spoil material with lithology 
ranging from limestone to acid sandstone and shale. Recognition of distinct soil 
series representing spoil materials through the application of mapping and descrip- 
tive methods employed in the National Cooperative Soil Survey Program will allow for 
the identification, classification, delineation, and interpretation of distinctly 
different types of spoil material. Once identified and delineated, information 
gained from reclamation research and experience can be transferred to other areas 
with similar soils. While the soils and associated data described in this report are 
specific for southern and eastern Ohio, the approach is relevant nationwide. 

290. Hall, R. B. Land Reclamation With Trees in Iowa. Paper in Trees for Recla- 
mation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 
1980, pp. 45-47. 

The author reviews the findings of studies done on old spoil areas and the current 
research being conducted on surface mine spoils in Iowa. Several potential determi- 
nants of what tree species could be planted were identified and included soil, pH, 
soil moisture availability, soil compaction, nutrient cycling, and mycorrhizal estab- 
lishment. The tree species found to be adapted to a variety of site conditions were 
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) and cottonwood ( Populus deltoids Marsh.). 
When soil moisture and pH were not the limiting factors to tree establishment, nitro- 
gen and phosphorus were. The following tree species were recommended under nitrogen- 
deficient conditions: European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn) , black lo- 
cust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and 'Arnot' bristly locust ( Robina fertilis Ashe). 
Phosphorus deficiency problems could be reduced if trees were inoculated with the ap- 
propriate mycorrhizal associator. A current study is being conducted using European 
alder and hybrid poplar ( Populus alba x Populus grandidentata .) . The establishment 
of tree plantations on surface-mined land is an alternative to the reclamation of 
sites for row-crop production. 

291. Hallman, R. G. Six Equipment Items for Revegetating Surface-Mined Lands. 
Paper in Proceedings: High Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO Water Resourc. 



136 

Res. Inst., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 1982). CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO. 
Infor. Ser. No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 41-49. 

The author describes six equipment systems developed by the U.S. Forest Service Mis- 
soula Equipment Development Center for use in revegetating surface-mined land in the 
arid and semiarid west. The systems described include (1) the dryland plug planter, 
designed to automatically plant containerized trees and shrub stock, (2) the tree 
transplanter, designed to transplant small trees and large shrubs that grow naturally 
in the vicinity of the minesite to the revegetation area, (3) the dryland sodder, 
which transfers large plugs of native topsoil from the mine area to the reclamation 
area with minimal disturbance to the soil profile and structure or to the vegetation, 
(4) the sprigger, designed to undercut and gather sprigs and/or portions of rhizoma- 
tous stem that can then be planted on reclamation areas, (5) the basin blade, which 
can be used to scoop out large depressions along slopes, where moisture can accumu- 
late to provide microsites favorable for plant growth, and (6) the Hodder gouger de- 
signed to create numerous depressions in the soil surface to accumulate moisture, 
reduce wind and water erosion, and thus promote plant establishment. The equipment 
described was being field-tested when this article was written. 

292. Halvorson, G. A., S. W. Melsted, S. A. Schroeder, M. W. Pole, C. M. Smith, 
and E. Deibert. Root Zone Soil Management in North Dakota. Coal Mine Reclamation. 
Paper in Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Lands? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26- 
27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 26-1 to 26-13. 

First-year results of a field study conducted at the Fairkirk Mine near Underwood, 
ND, are reported. The study is designed to examine variations in wheat yields ( Tri- 
ticum aestivum L.) with varying depths of topsoil, addition of a lift composed of low 
salt material, and compaction. Subsidence was also measured. Wheat yields were im- 
proved by greater depth of topsoil and addition of a low-salt second-lift material. 
Compaction of the overburden by scrapers reduced wheat yields. After 1 year, subsi- 
dence was almost equal on compacted and noncompacted plots. The initial data pre- 
sented indicate that land reclaimed with sandy overburden may require deeper topsoil 
or the addition of low-salt second-lift material to achieve maximum yields in western 
North Dakota. Since this article is somewhat of a status report, conclusions were 
withheld pending incorporation of data from subsequent years. Wheat yield and char- 
acterization data are presented that could be of use in comparison studies and in 
reclamation planning. 

293. Hamon, W. R. , and R. R. Kraspe. Preliminary Research on Potential Reclama- 
tion of Oil Shale Mined Lands in Kentucky. Paper in 1981 Eastern Oil Shale Symposium 
Proceedings (Lexington, KY, Nov. 15, 1981). Inst, for Min. and Miner. Res., Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 55-81. 

This study investigated the reclamation potential of oil-shale-mined land in Ken- 
tucky. Assessments were made on the potential for establishing vegetation using the 
available soil and overburden, the use of processed oil shales to improve the physi- 
cal properties of soil high in clay materials , and the treatments and species needed 
to establish an adequate vegetative cover. The physical and chemical properties were 
determined for the materials studied, soil, overburden, and oil shale. Macronutri- 
ents and micronutrients found in the raw shales were generally within the limits of 
those found in soils. A growth chamber study was used to test vegetative response on 
soils, overburden, oil shale, and admixtures (1/2 soil + 1/2 oil shale and 1/2 over- 
burden + 1/2 oil shale). Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ) was the species 
chosen for this part of the study. The vegetative responses (biomass) to the two 
admixtures were not significantly different. However, the yields obtained from the 
admixture treatments were generally larger than yields from either the overburden 
or the soil alone. Admixtures apparently improve infiltration and water retention 



137 

properties of the soil and overburden while retaining nutrients, pH, and soluble 
salts at desirable levels. 

294. Hardaway, J. Bond Release Criteria. Paper in Symposium on Adequate Reclama- 
tion of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America 
and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 34-1 to 34-4. 

The author presents a concise discussion of the three-phase approach to the release 
of performance bonds practiced by the U.S. Office of Surface Mining, regulating coal 
mining operations on Federal land. Release of bonds occurs in varying percentages 
when (1) backfilling, grading, and topsoil replacement are complete, (2) establish- 
ment requirements for revegetation are met, and (3) all surface coal mining and rec- 
lamation operations are completed, including achievement of an approved alternative 
land use. The discussion is extensively referenced to the Surface Mining Control and 
Reclamation Act of 1977. 

295. Hargis , N. E., E. F. Redente, W. E. Sowards , and D. G. Steward. Eliminating 
Biomass Sampling as a Requirement for Evaluating Revegetation Success By Predicting 
Biomass From Cover. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: 
Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). 
CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, 
pp. 93-96. 

The authors examine the possibility of eliminating biomass as a requirement for eval- 
uating revegetation success in instances where cover and biomass production are sig- 
nificantly correlated. A brief review of pertinent literature revealed that cover 
can be a fair to good predictor of biomass but that predictions vary in reliability. 
This variability is due to differences in vegetation growth form, species composi- 
tion, stage of maturity, range site, and method of sampling. The authors feel that 
when comparing vegetation of similar growth form and utility between a reclaimed area 
and a reference area, such differences can be held relatively constant. Consequent- 
ly, given the specifications set forth in regulations for references areas and reveg- 
etated areas, biomass on a revegetated area should not significantly differ from that 
on a corresponding reference area; thus collecting both cover and biomass data would 
lead to redundant conclusions and needless added expense. Field testing of this hy- 
pothesis was not conducted. The discussion offered in this article merits consid- 
eration when designing revegetation monitoring programs . While the article was writ- 
ten with special reference to the Western United States, it could find applications 
nationwide. 

296. Harju, H. J. Reclamation for Wildlife - The Wyoming Viewpoint. Paper in 
Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 1980). 
Soil Conserv. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 25-1 to 25-7. 

This article contains a general discussion of principles and methods applicable to 
reclaiming surface-mined land to meet the needs of wildlife. Diversity of habitat, 
topography, and vegetation are stressed. The author suggests that the postmining 
topography reflect pre-mining contours by incorporating rock piles, snags, brush 
piles, nesting boxes, nesting platforms, and sections of highwall to introduce irreg- 
ularities into the reclaimed terrain. Plant species selection should stress a vari- 
ety of native plant species keyed to particular site conditions. The article is 
useful to provide background information for individuals with little or no experience 
in wildlife biology , wildlife habitat management , and reclaiming surface-mined land 
to meet these needs. The article focuses on conditions primarily encountered in the 
Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

297. Harrison, J. E. Summer Soil Temperature as a Factor in Revegetation of Coal 
Mine Waste. Paper in Report of Activities, Part A. Geol. Sur. of Canada, Ottawa, 
Canada, Paper 77-IA, 1977, pp. 329-332. 



138 

This article reports the results of field studies conducted in the Crowsnest Pass 
area of Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Cursory observation seemed to indicate 
that high summer soil temperatures were an important factor in revegetation. The in- 
vestigations examined the composition of the coal waste to be revegetated; the varia- 
tion of surface temperature with time, aspect, slope elevation, and depth; moisture 
conditions in the coal waste; thermal properties; and the implications of these data 
to revegetation efforts. The author recommends establishment of grasses prior to the 
planting of trees and shrubs to reduce thermal injury. The results and discussion 
contained in this report may be applicable through the United States , particularly to 
the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

298. Harrison, W. , and A. Van Luik. Suitability of Dredged Material for Reclama- 
tion of Surface-Mined Land. Argonne Natl. Lab. AUL/ES-73, Dec. 1979. 138 pp. 

The main objective of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of using dredged 
material to reduce acid surface runoff and drainage from coal mine spoils near Otta- 
wa, IL. A second objective was to promote the use of dredged material in enhancing 
land degraded by surface mining. Four test plots were constructed and consisted of a 
control and three treatment plots that received a 0.9-m covering of dredged material. 
Two of the treated plots received lime. All plots were seeded to grass species. The 
migration of chemical compounds and metals, present in the dredged material, and 
their effects on water quality were monitored. Appendices contain detailed informa- 
tion on climatic conditions, spoil characterization, and spoil monitoring. This 
detailed study found that the dredged material did not adversely affect the water 
quality of the area. The dredged material supported plant growth, decreased ground 
water contamination, and controlled acid runoff. One problem with the study was that 
no measurement of the vegetation was made, only visual evaluations. 

299. Harthill, M. , and C. M. McKell. Ecological Stability — Is This a Blealistlc 
Goal for Arid Land Rehabilitation? Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
Volume 2 (based on the Internat. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand 
Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 557-567. 

The paper provides an excellent review of the underlying ecological principles inher- 
ent in reclamation and revegetation activities. The authors examine portions of Pub- 
lic Law 95-87 in light of these ecological principles. This article is general in 
content. However, it provides an excellent overview and perspective of revegetation 
aims and regulations as they apply to the environmental conditions unique to the arid 
and semiarid regions of the Western United States. This article is relevant to rec- 
lamation planning in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions 
recognized in this evaluation process. 

300. Harwood, G. D., and J. Anderson. Recent Advances in the Selection and En- 
hancement of Plant Materials: Applications for Native Plants to Revegetate Arid 
Mined Lands. Paper in 1981 Symposixom on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, 
pp. 39-43. 

This article discusses the potential for solving revegetation problems in the arid 
regions through the modification of plants rather than the more traditional approach 
to mined-land revegetation, surface modification of the site. By using tissue cul- 
tures of certain native plant species and selecting for, at the cellular level, natu- 
ral or induced genetic resistances to toxic conditions, native plants are developed 
which express selected characteristics. Some of the desirable characteristics would 
be increased tolerance to drought, salinity, and toxicity. The potential benefits 
from the development of resistant native strains would be lower revegetation and site 
maintenance costs. 



139 

301. Harwood, G. D. , T. R. Verma. and J. L. Thames. Coal Mine Reclamation Prob- 
lems and Practices in the Southwestern United States. Paper in Stability in Coal 
Mining (Proc. of the First Int. Sjraip. on Stability in Coal Mining, Vancouver, B.C., 
1978). Miller Freman Pub., Inc., San Francisco, CA, 1979, pp. 430-437. 

The authors provide a general discussion of the problems and practices of surface 
coal mine reclamation in Southwestern United States. Their discussion is centered 
around experiences gained from reclamation efforts at the Black. Mesa Mine in north- 
eastern Arizona. While few or no data are provided for the individual topics cov- 
ered, the discussions will be useful to individuals with limited knowledge of the 
problems specific to reclamation of surface-coal-mined lands in this region of the 
United States. 

302. Haufler, J. B., R. L. Downing, and B. S. McGinnes. Factors Influencing the 
Revegetation Success of Orphan Mines in Southwest Virginia. Paper in Symposium on 
Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States. (WV Univ., Dec. 
1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-78/81 , 1978, pp. 287-293. 

This article discusses selected site factors that influence natural revegetation on 
orphan mines in southwestern Virginia. Only mined areas without any type of reclama- 
tion were considered for this study. Percent cover was determined for 712 quadrats 
(1 m^) and the vegetation less than 1 cm in diameter rooted within the quadrat was 
clipped. Two soil samples were also taken from the center of each quadrat for analy- 
sis. One sample was taken from the surface (top 2 cm) and the other from a depth of 
20 cm. The soil analysis indicated that the surface soil nutrient and pH levels cor- 
related with the nutrient and pH levels of the deep samples. The authors feel that 
pH levels could possibly be used as a quick indication of nutrient levels in the 
soil. Soil potassium was found to be the best indication of total percent cover; as 
surface potassium (ppm) increased, percent cover increased. Soil pH levels were 
found to be the best indicator of percent bare ground. As the pH decreased below 
5.0, soil pH became more influential on percent bare ground. The authors concluded 
that potassium levels should be examined carefully if the long-term goal of reclama- 
tion is to return the mine to a natural state. 

303. Hauser, V. L. Grass Establishment: New Directions. Paper in Vegetative Re- 
habilitation and Equipment Workshop 36th Annual Report (Denver, CO, Feb 4-5, 1982). 
U.S. For. Ser. Equip. Dev. Cent., Missoula, MT, 1982, pp. 54-59. 

This research was conducted to find new, more effective rangeland or pastureland 
seeding methods, more likely to achieve success than the present systems. Three dif- 
ferent grass establishment methods were tested: (1) punch planting-seeds placed in 
the bottom of a hole that is deeper than normal, (2) transplanting, and (3) planting 
germinated seeds. The results indicate that planting germinated seeds was the easi- 
est and most rapid method that could be developed for commercial use. Howev- 
er, transplanting has the greatest probability for successful grass establishment. 
Transplants are big enough and vigorous enough to overcome dry surface soil, high 
temperature, wind, insects, rodents, and weed competition. There is, however, a need 
to develop efficient mechanization if transplants are to be used in large-scale grass 
establishment. Even though this research was conducted on noncoal lands, it has di- 
rect application to the establishment of range or pasture species on surface-mined 
land. 

304. Haynes, R. J. Natural Vegetation Development on a 43 Year Old Surface Mined 
Site in Perry County, Illinois. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, 
Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 437-466. 



140 

An evaluation of the natural revegetation development on a 43-year-old ungraded sur- 
face mined site in Perry County, IL, was made, and the vegetation was compared to 
that of an adjacent unmined oak-hickory forest. Herbaceous, shrubby vegetation and 
tree seedlings less than 6.6 cm Dbh were sampled on the mine site along transects. 
Of interest were (1) species composition, (2) number of stems per species, (3) fre- 
quency of occurrence, and (4) species distribution relative to position on the spoil 
banks. Trees greater than 6.6 cm Dbh on mined and unmined land were sampled for 
(1) relative frequency, (2) relative density, (3) relative dominance, and (4) impor- 
tance value. Sixty-one species of ground cover, comprising 19 families, were re- 
corded and included 5 annuals, 4 biennials, and 52 perennials. The most common fami- 
lies were Gramineae, Poaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae, and Rosaceae. When compared 
to the data collected 22 years after mining there had been a decline in the number of 
annuals and an increase in the number of perennials . Sixteen species of trees were 
recorded on the mined land, with 73 pet occurring in valleys and on lower slopes. 
When compared with the adjacent oak-hiekory forest, the mined site had little simi- 
larity in species composition. Density and basal area were 61 and 59 pet, respec- 
tively, of those found on the natural forested site. The mined site resembled a 
southern floodplain or mesic forest type. The author concluded that the rate of suc- 
cession on the mined site is suppressed. It is hypothesized that the primary factors 
limiting succession are the dense shrub and herbaceous vegetation, which may restrict 
the establishment of tree species, and the lack of an available seed source for the 
heavy seeded species, oak ( Que reus spp.) and hickory ( Carya spp.), at an appropriate 
time for establishment. The author concludes that the most reasonable management al- 
ternative available for this site is to allow succession to continue on its own. 

305. Haynes, R. J. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 and 
Potential Impacts on Fish and Wildlife. Paper in Proceedings of the Thirty-Second 
Annual Conference, Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (Hot 
Springs, VA, Nov. 5-8, 1978). S.E. Assoc. Fish and Wildlife Agenc. , 1978, pp. 790- 
796. 

This paper provides an interpretaion of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation 
Act of 1977 with special reference to fish and wildlife. The author states that fish 
and wildlife will continue to be adversely affected by surface mining. These impacts 
will be due mainly to losses of specific habitat types and changes in land use fol- 
lowing mining and reclamation which result in post-mining changes in habitat type. 
The discussion also includes the abandoned mine program that was at the proposal 
stage at the time of the writing of this article. This article takes a broad, na- 
tionwide view. It has been included in the current bibliography for its historical 
value. 

306. Haynes, R. J., and J. M. Klopastek. Reclamation of Abandoned Mine Lands and 
Fish and Wildlife Mitigation Needs. Paper in The Mitigation Symposium: A National 
Workshop on Mitigating Losses of Fish and Wildlife Habitats (CO State Univ. , Fort 
Collins, CO, July 16-20, 1979). U.S. For. Ser. Rocky Mount. For. and Range Exp. 
Sta., GTR RM-65, 1979, pp. 256-263. 

This paper reviews methods for taking inventory of abandoned coal-mined lands. Habi- 
tat evaluation methods are briefly discussed. Criteria and planning strategies are 
discussed to ensure that fish and wildlife values are considered in the development 
and implementation of reclamation plans. This paper specifically deals with the 
abandoned coal mine portions of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 
1977 and the Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP). While the article was written from 
a nationwide perspective, the experience of the authors was primarily gained through 
involvement with RAMP in Tennessee. 

307. Haynes, R. J., G. K. Rutherford, and G. W. Van Loon. Metal Contami- 
nants in Surface Soils and Vegetation as a Result of Nickel/Copper Smelting at 



1^1 

Coniston, Ontario, Canada. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 2, 1983, pp. 123- 
137. 

Soil and vegetation present near a nickel-copper smelter in Coniston, Ontario were 
sampled along a 12-km transect to determine the metal concentrations present. Two 
sites not influenced by the smelting operation (reference areas) were also sampled. 
The results of the study show that the smelting operations have contaminated the sur- 
face soils with nickel, copper, and iron at levels higher than are normally found in 
uncontaminated soils. Maximum levels found in the surface soils for nickel, copper, 
and iron were 1.2, 0.97, and 23.0 pet, respectively. Distance from the smelter, soil 
organic carbon content, and amount of erosion were the major factors in determining 
nickel, copper, and iron concentrations along the transect. Erosional processes have 
transported a large amount of contaminated surface materials to new locations. The 
only heavy metal that was above the normal range for plant tissue concentration was 
nickel found in foliar samples of tickle grass ( Agrostis scabra Willd.) and paper 
birch ( Be tula papyrifera Marsh). A regression analysis indicated that tissue concen- 
trations for tickle grass correlated with soil metal concentrations . This was not 
the case for paper birch. The authors conclude that the major problems associated 
with successful establishment of vegetation in the Coniston area are the surface soil 
physical and chemical properties. 

308. Heale, E. L. , and D. P. Ormrod. Effects of Nickel and Copper on Seed Germi- 
nation and Growth and Development of Seedlings of Acer Ginnala, Betula Papyrifera, 
Picea Abies, and Pinus Banksiana. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 2, 1983, pp. 41-54. 

Nickel and copper are the predominant components of particulate fallout from a 
smelter located in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, Canada. A controlled environment ex- 
periment was conducted to determine some of the effects of toxic levels of nickel 
and copper on the germination, growth, and development of amur maple ( Acer ginnala 
Maxim.), paper birch ( Betula papyrifera ^-larsh.), Norway spruce ( Picea ables (L.) 
Karst) , and jack pine ( Pinus banksiana Lamb). Seeds of each species were planted 
in pots containing silica sand, and seven treatments were established using full- 
strength Hoagland's nutrient solution with NiS04 added as the Ni^* source and CUSO4 
as the Cu^"*" source. As the seeds germinated, visual observations were recorded every 
day for the first 2 weeks and every 2 or 3 days thereafter. Each seedling, if it 
survived, was harvested after 40 days. Cotyledon, leaf, and needle development of 
the species tested were affected by increasing the metal levels in the solution. 
There were also alterations in the pigmentation and distortions in the orientation 
and morphology of the cotyledons, leaves, and needles. The roots were stunted and 
thicker in diameter with increased metal concentrations. There were also fewer sec- 
ondary lateral roots present. The germination of pine seeds was not significantly 
affected by the Ni^* and Cu^* treatments, but seedling survival was directly related. 
Jack pine survival was least affected by the treatments. Growth and development re- 
sponses to toxic metal levels also differed among species. As the concentration of 
nickel and copper increased, there was a corresponding reduction in the surface areas 
of plant parts and seedling dry weights. The authors conclude that in order for the 
reclamation of metal-contaminated areas to be successful, the seeds of native species 
must be collected to determine if insensitive strains exist and if they are able to 
survive the elevated metal loadings. 

309. Heilman, P. Effects of Surface Treatment and Interplanting of Shrub Alder 
on Growth of Douglas-fir on Coal Spoils. J. Environ. Qual. , v. 12, No. 1, 1983, 
pp. 109-113. 

This study investigated the effects that surface bedding and interplanting of 
Sitka alder ( Alnus sinuata (Reg.) Rydb.) had on the growth of Douglas fir ( Pseudo- 
tsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. Menziesii) planted on the Centralia coal mine in 



142 

southwestern Washington. Bedding was used as an alternative to grass cover and con- 
sisted of alternate ridges and furrows placed across the slope. The treatments con- 
sisted of (1) contour bedding with planted Douglas fir, (2) interplanting Douglas fir 
with Sitka alder on bedded spoil, (3) a control planting of Douglas fir with Sitka 
alder on bedded spoil, and (4) a control planting of Douglas fir that was unbedded 
and not interplanted with Sitka alder. The results indicate that topsoil that had 
been contour bedded significantly increased the growth, foliar nitrogen content, and 
resistance to wind for 5-year-old Douglas fir. Poor growth due to nitrogen defi- 
ciency was reported for trees grown on unbedded sites. By interplanting with Sitka 
alder on bedded spoil, an increase in Douglas fir growth occurred, but the growth in- 
crease was not statistically significant. The author concludes that based on the low 
nitrogen status of trees on control plots, interplanting with Sitka alder is expected 
to benefit the growth of Douglas fir planted on surface mine spoil. 

310. Hemler, D. A., and D. E. Samuel. Aspen Propagation on Abandoned Surface 
Mines and Use by White-Tailed Deer. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better 
Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. XL Univ., 
and Madisonville Coram. Coll ., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West 
Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 48-55. 

Mature bigtooth aspen ( Populus grandidentata Michx.) on 29 plots established on an 
unreclaimed surface mine in northern West Virginia were cut during late winter to 
stimulate raraet propagation. Root suckers grew on 26 plots with an average of 64 
ramets per plot (0.8 suckers/m^). An average of 18.3 stump suckers were recorded on 
these plots. At the end of the growing season the mean height of the root suckers 
was 25 cm, and the radius of clone expansion averaged 4.3 m. Track counts, pellet 
group counts , and browse survey were conducted to determine utilization by white- 
tailed deer. From the track data, it appeared that deer do not frequent surface 
mines during the winter months . The use of the mine during the winter months ap- 
peared to remain constant before and after cuts. Ninety-two pet of the total 2,140 
suckers were browsed during the summer months by deer. This summer browse data sug- 
gests that deer will use aspen suckers heavily in West Virginia when available. This 
paper provides silvicultural and deer browse information pertinent to reclamation 
planning in the Eastern Coal Mining Region. The information might find application 
over a slightly broader geographical area with prudent consideration of site, cli- 
mate, and species characteristics. 

311. Hendrix, J. W. Nursery Techniques for Production of Tree Seedlings Infected 
With Specific Mycorrhizal Fungi for Surface Mine Reclamation. (Contract G 1115212, 
Dept. of Plant Path., Univ. KY, Dec. 20, 1982). BuMines , OFR 39-83, 1983, 45 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study conducted in western and eastern Ken- 
tucky. A survey of orphan coal mine lands in these areas found a great diversity of 
endomycorrhizal fungi species present. Endomycorrhizal fungi isolated from orphan 
mines stimulated growth of sweetgum seedlings ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.) on mine- 
soil at low fertilization, but inhibited growth at high fertilization. To produce 
mycorrhizal sweetgum seedlings, incorporation of the fungal inoculum throughout the 
growth medium was superior to sidebanding. A procedure for isolation of single-spore 
cultures of endomycorrhizal fungi was developed. The study included a demonstration 
of a method for producing large numbers of bareroot pine seedlings infected with 
Pisolithus tinctorius for use in mine land reclamation. The information contained in 
this report will be useful to individuals planning surface mine reclamation projects 
and research in portions of the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Regions. 

312. Hennessy, G. G. Response of a Grass and Shrub Seeding Mixture on Various 
Soil Treatments on Strip-Mined Land in the Southwest. Ph. D. Thesis, NM State Univ., 
Las Cruces, NM, 1981, 230 pp. 



143 

This study evaluated the establishment and productivity of a grass and shrub mixture 
using different soil treatments at Utah International's San Juan Mine near Farming- 
ton, NM. The effects of ripping and furrowing on plant growth was also evaluated. 
Additional information on the effects of various soil treatments on aboveground and 
belowground growth of fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) was ob- 
tained from both the field study and a greenhouse study. The field test was con- 
ducted on a shale spoil material using four different topsoil treatments. The plots 
were seeded with a mixture of six grasses and one shrub, fourwing saltbush. Grass 
production, frequency, density, and cover measurements were taken on the grass spe- 
cies . Fourwing saltbush height and weight measurements were taken over a 2-year pe- 
riod. The test site was irrigated the first 2 years, and soil water content, avail- 
able water, infiltration, bulk density, and soil water retention were measured. In a 
greenhouse, soil colvmins and root boxes were used to collect root and top growth 
data. Field and greenhouse results indicated that topsoiling was beneficial to plant 
growth. Water content at various depths was greater on nonripped treatments than 
ripped treatments. Ripping showed no beneficial effects on plant growth. This re- 
port presents an excellent background discussion on revegetation of coal mined lands 
in the arid portions of the Western United States. The discussion of test results is 
thorough and extensive. Data are given on all measured parameters. 

313. Henning, S. J., and T. S. Colvin. Management of Reclaimed Surface-Mined 
Lands for Row Crop Production. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Recla- 
mation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Nat. Coal 
Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 298-305. 

The authors discuss the criteria used to develop a restoration plan suitable for row 
crop farming as par*" of the Iowa Coal Project Demonstration Mine situated approxi- 
mately 9 miles south and west of Oskaloosa, lA. Results are presented for the first- 
year studies, where corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) were 
grown on a restored portion of the Demonstration Mine. It was concluded that row 
crops can be grown with moderate success the first year after restoration. To accom- 
plish this, good seedbed preparation is required that may require heavier than normal 
farm tillage implements and seed planters. Minimum-tillage or zero-tillage row crop- 
ping machinery may be suitable. An agricultural subsoiler proved to be superior to 
a bulldozer ripper because the latter increased the difficulty of preparing a good 
seedbed. The authors feel that the difficulty will eventually diminish, but the need 
for deep tillage will continue until large, well-developed root systems are obtained 
consistently. This article is pertinent to reclamation planning in the Interior Coal 
Mining Region. 

314. Henry, D. S., W. F. Kuenstler, and S. A. Sanders. Establishment of Forage 
Species on Surface Mined Land in Kentucky. J. Soil Water Conserv. , v. 36, No. 2, 
Mar. -Apr. 1981, pp. 111-113. 

Eight forage species were seeded on the surface mine spoil of two eastern and western 
Kentucky mine sites. Tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), Caucasian bluestem 
( Andropogon caucasicus Trin.), big bluestem ( Andropogon gererdii Vitman) , indian- 
grass ( Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash), switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.), crownvetch 
( Coro- nilla varia L.), and two different lespedezas ( Lespedeza spp.) were seeded 
by various methods. After 3 years there was no difference in plant response due to 
establishment method at either site. The most consistent stands at both sites re- 
sulted from Caucasian bluestem, seeded alone. In western Kentucky switchgrass per- 
formed as well as the Caucasian bluestem, and all warm-season grasses outperformed 
their counterparts in eastern Kentucky. Legume response was better in the eastern 
site than in the west. Rainfall and soil pH were primarily responsible for the re- 
gional differences. 



144 

315. Hensley, D. , D. McLaren, and R. Daniels. Establishment of Christmas Trees on 
Mined Land Using Herbicides. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, pp. 383-385. 

This study determined the feasibility of using preplanting and postplanting herbi- 
cides for establishing pine as a crop on vegetated mined land. Four herbicide treat- 
ments were used: (1) control, (2) 1.6 pet solution of glyphosate (preplanting), 
(3) glyphosate + 8.96 kg/ha oryzalin (postplanting), and (4) glyphosate + 1.70 kg/ha 
simazine (postplanting). The 2-0 Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) were planted af- 
ter the glyphosate had been applied. Scotch pine survival was significantly greater 
in the herbicide treatments than in the control. All three herbicide treatments re- 
sulted in comparable survival percentages: 83.3 for the glyphosate alone, 80.0 for 
glyphosate + oryzalin, and 80.0 for glyphosate + simazine. The best weed control was 
found for the glyphosate + oryzalin treatment; however, it was not statistically dif- 
ferent from other herbicide treatments. The authors conclude that the use of pre- 
planting non-selective herbicides will reduce competition from existing vegetation 
and that the application of preemergent herbicides will aid in maintaining control. 
This system provides a feasible and economical method for the establishment of pines 
for Christmas tree production on reclaimed mine land. 

316. Hensley, D. L. , H. Sparks, and G. R. Brown. Survival of Blackberries on 
Mined Land. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 3, 1983, pp. 237-240. 

This study evaluated the survival and growth of commercial blackberry ( Rubus spp.) 
cultivars planted as root sections on mined land in eastern Kentucky. The black- 
berries were planted during 1979 and 1980, and the following cultivars were used: 
Comanche, Cheyenne, Cherokee, and Darrow thorny blackberries. For the 1979 planting 
no statistically significant differences in survival or cane growth were found. How- 
ever, in the 1980 plantings the survival of the Comanche cultivar was significantly 
greater than that of either the Darrow or Cherokee cultivars. No statistically sig- 
nificant differences were found in cultivar cane growth for the 1980 plantings. For 
the two plantings cane growth was generally good regardless of cultivar. Growth gen- 
erally improved with increased management. 

317. Herricks, E. E., A. J. Krzysik, R. E. Szatoni, and D. J. Tazik. Best Current 
Practices for Fish and Wildlife on Surface Mined Lands in the Eastern Interior Coal 
Region (U.S. FWS contract 14-16-0009-79, Dep. Civil Eng. , Univ. of IL) . U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-80/68 May, 1982, 212 pp. 

This document identifies and reviews some best current practices (BCP) which are 
available for the reclamation of fish and wildlife resources on lands mined for coal 
in the Eastern Interior Coal Region (EICR) . A BCP is defined as a technique or meth- 
od that reflects the best technology or state-of-the-art currently available for sur- 
face mine reclamation for the fish and wildlife component. Two general types of 
BCP's are identified. The first includes reclamation procedures based on ecological 
principles or fish and wildlife management practices. The second type includes rec- 
lamation practices regularly used by mine operators in the EICR developed through 
operational experience and demonstration. This review of BCP's includes sections on 
site preparation activities and methods for fish and wildlife restoration, mainte- 
nance, or enhancement. Information on surface preparation includes sections dealing 
with topographic development, preparation of the land surface for vegetation develop- 
ment, and protection of the surface from erosion. Procedures that affect water chem- 
istry and physical configuration (including stream channel characteristics) have 
received particular attention owing to their role in development and maintenance 
of water quality. This document was developed to help surface coal mine operators 
identify and implement the BCP's for protecting and improving fish and wildlife re- 
sources on their minesites during both the active coal extraction and post-mining 
phases of their operations. It will also be useful to agencies for fish and wildlife 



145 

management, technical assistance agencies, and land owners. BCP information is pre- 
sented in a form that will facilitate direct incorporation of the procedures into 
mining and reclamation activities. This document is designed to be a user-oriented 
handbook. Consequently, much of the theory supporting the BCP's have been omitted, 
concentrating Instead on providing information on applying the BCP's to particular 
situations. Technical references are listed at the end of each practice that provide 
background and theoretical basis for the development of the techniques. This hand- 
book provides an excellent source of information for planning reclamation in the 
eastern portion of the Interior Coal Region. 

318. Hersman, L. E., and K. L. Temple. ATP as a Parameter for Characterizing Coal 
Strip Mine Spoils. Soil Sci., v. 126, No. 6, 1978, pp. 350-352. 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentrations were used in this study as a means of 
assessing microbial activity of strip mine spoils and native soils (reference area) 
near Cols trip, MT. A modification of Bancroft, Wleke, and Paul's procedure was used 
to extract ATP from the soil samples. ATP concentrations were highest in the surface 
samples (0-4 in), middepth samples (5-8 in) had intermediate values, and the bottom 
samples (9-12 in) had the lowest concentration. The average ATP concentration was 
higher for the native range soil than for the spoil material. With increasing depth, 
the difference in ATP concentration between spoils and native soils became more sig- 
nificant. The ATP concentration in spoil decreased faster than in the native soil. 
The authors concluded that it was possible to differentiate the two soil systems by 
comparing ATP measurements . 

319. Hersman, L. E., and K. L. Temple. Comparison of ATP, Phosphatase, Pectinoly- 
ase, and Respiration as Indicators of Microbial Activity in Reclaimed Coal Strip Mine 
Spoils. Soil Sci., v. 127, No. 2, 1979, pp. 70-73. 

The authors collected soil samples from reclaimed coal strip mine spoils in Montana 
in 1975 and 1977 and analyzed them for Andenosine Triphosphate (ATP), respiration, 
phosphatase and pectinolyase. Although soil microbial activity correlated to some 
extent with each parameter measured, ATP was the most satisfactory measurement. ATP 
is more expensive to measure due to reagent cost, but the authors recommended this 
method over the others because it correlates better and is a fast procedure not re- 
quiring long incubation periods. 

320. Hersman, L. E., and D. A. Klein. Retorted Oil Shale Effects on Soil Micro- 
biological Characteristics. J. Environ. Qual., v. 8, No. 4, 1979, pp. 520-524. 

This laboratory study was conducted to investigate the effects of retorted oil shale 
additions on the microbiological characteristics of surface soils. Paraho retorted 
oil shale from Rifle, CO, was mixed with native northwestern Colorado soils. Five 
soil-shale treatments were used: (1) 100 pet soil (control), (2) 95 pet soil-5 pet 
shale, (3) 9 pet soil-10 pet shale, (4) 75 pet soil-25 pet shale, and (5) 100 pet 
shale (control). The microbiological parameters of interest were nitrogen fixation, 
dehydrogenase activity, oxygen utilization rates, glucose mineralization, ATP concen- 
trations, and microbial counts for the bacteria, actinomycetes , and fungi present. 
Of the microbial parameters tested, nitrogen fixation was most affected by the re- 
torted oil shale. This suggests that nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation in surface soils 
may be sensitive to the presence of oil shale. Dehydrogenase activity, ATP concen- 
trations, C-glycose mineralization activity, oxygen utilization, and fungal popula- 
tions were also significantly decreased by retorted oil shale. Bacterial and actino- 
mycete populations were not significantly affected by the presence of up to 25 pet by 
weight of retorted oil shale. The authors concluded that it would be necessary to 
assure sufficient surface soil is used to cover retorted oil shales for development 
and functioning of a diverse vegetative microbiological community. 



146 

321. Hill, R. D. , K. R. Hinkle, and M. C. Apel. Reclamation of Pyritic Waste. 
U.S. EPA Municipal Environ. Res. Lab., EPA-600/D-82-340, 1982, 22 pp. 

Laboratory and greenhouse studies and a full-scale demonstration project were con- 
ducted to examine the reclamation of land used for the disposal of pyritic waste 
with sewage sludge. Some of the mining waste had a pH as low as 1.8, and copper and 
zinc contents as high as 10 mg/g and 2 mg/g, respectively. Good grass growth was 
supported, and the quality of the leachate generated improved when mine waste was 
treated with sewage sludge, agricultural limestone, and fertilizer in column studies. 
In 1976, reclamation was initiated on 8 ha of disturbed mine land. By 1982, fair to 
good vegetative cover had been established on over 90 pet of the area. Yearly main- 
tenance has been required on the more toxic areas to assure success of the vegeta- 
tion. Maintenance includes addition of fertilizer and limestone, and in the worst 
area irrigation during drought periods. Weeping lovegrass ( Eragrostis curgula 
(Schrad.) Nees) and Ky-31 fescue ( Fe^tuca elatior (L.) var. arundinacea (Schreb.) 
have been the most successful vegetation. The field studies reported were conducted 
at the Sulphur and Boyd Smith deep shaft pyrite mines along Contrary Creek in Louisa 
County, VA. The procedures and results may be applicable to reclamation efforts on 
other material having similar physical and chemical characteristics throughout the 
Eastern and in portions of the Interior and Gulf Coast Coal Mining Regions. 

322. Hiller, R. M. , and D. H. Graves. Relative Effectiveness of Some Coal Mine 
Refuse Revegetation Techniques: Leachate Quality. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 
1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 377-383. 

The paper evaluates direct liming and seeding of herbaceous species as an alternative 
for reclaiming coarse refuse areas in central Illinois. The effectiveness of these 
methods is based on comparisons between direct-limed and seeded areas, soil-covered 
and seeded areas, and untreated areas. Tension lysimeters were installed, and the 
leachate samples were analyzed for the presence of plant nutrients, phytotoxic ele- 
ments, conductivity, and pH. It is recommended that direct liming and seeding not be 
used as a sole treatment on unweathered refuse due to oxidation and acid production. 
Direct liming and seeding would best be used on prelaw refuse areas that have under- 
gone seasonal cycles of weathering, oxidation, acidification, and leaching. This en- 
vironment can maintain an effective equilibrium between limestone neutralization and 
acid production. 

323. Hinckle, C. R. , R. E. Ambrose, and C. R. Wenzel. A Handbook for Meeting Fish 
and Wildlife Information Needs to Surface Mine Coal - GSM Region I. (U.S. FWS con- 
tract 14-16-0009-79-092, Sci. Applic. , Inc.) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-79/ 
48.3.1, Feb. 1981, 381 pp. 

This handbook is one volume in a five-volxime set. Each provides information pertain- 
ing to consideration of fish and wildlife resources in the premining, mining, recla- 
mation and compliance phases of surface mining. Methods and sources for obtaining 
the information necessary to satisfy State and Federal regulations are suggested. 
Specifically this handbook contains suggestions for: locating sources of fish and 
wildlife information, describing fish and wildlife on a mine site and permit area, 
analyzing mining impacts on fish and wildlife, establishing postmining land uses and 
reclamation objectives, mitigating negative impacts on fish and wildlife, identifying 
ways to enhance fish and wildlife on the permit area, and monitoring and complying to 
obtain bond release. Emphasis is placed on providing assistance to operators in en- 
hancing fish and wildlife resources during the postmining use of the land. Sugges- 
tions concerning selected species and habitat management are given, with fish and 
wildlife as either the primary or the secondary land use. Several appendices are in- 
cluded to provide information on agency contacts, technical references, and sources 



147 

of plant materials for revegetation specific for this region. This document provides 
an excellent framework for developing reclamation plans. It was designed to provide 
assistance to coal mine operators, landowners, and other parties involved in planning 
for the protection and/or enhancement of fish and wildlife resources during the sur- 
face mining process. This report has been rated "excellent" or "good" for numerous 
keywords used in the evaluation process. This rating system has been applied some- 
what differently for this report. Since this document is a handbook suggesting gen- 
eral procedures for identifying information needs and obtaining that information 
rather than reporting an actual field study, the rating represents the treatment of 
these subject areas within the framework of the handbook. All land use designations 
considered in this evaluation process are considered with particular reference to 
fish and wildlife needs. The information provided is largely specific to OSM Region 
I, which correlates to the northern portions of the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

324. Hinckle, C. R. , R. E. Ambrose, and C. R. Wenzel. A Handbook for Meeting Fish 
and Wildlife Information Needs to Surface Mine Coal — OSM Region II (U.S. FWS contract 
14-16-0009-79-092, Sci. Applic, Inc.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-79/ 

48.3.2, Feb. 1981, 368 pp. 

The comments and evaluation contained in the annotation for a similar handbook in 
this series (Sec item 323) also apply here. However, the information provided in 
this volume is largely specific for OSM Region II , which correlates to the southern 
portion of the Eastern, the extreme southwestern portion of the Interior and the 
eastern portion of the Gulf Coast Coal Mining Regions. 

325. Hinckle, C. R. , R. E. Ambrose, and C. R. Wenzel. A Handbook for Meeting Fish 
and Wildlife Information Needs to Surface Mine Coal — OSM Region III. (US FWS contract 
14-16-0009-79-092, Sci. Applic, Inc.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-79/ 

48.3.3, Feb. 1981, 367 pp. 

The comments and evaluation contained in the annotation for a similar handbook in 
this series (Sec item 323) also apply here. However, the information provided in 
this volume is largely specific for OSM Region III, which correlates to the central 
portion of the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

326. Hinckle, C. R. , R. E. Ambrose, and C. R. Wenzel. A Handbook for Meeting Fish 
and Wildlife Information Needs to Surface Mine Coal — OSM Region IV (US FWS contract 
14-16-0009-79-092, Sci. Applic, Inc.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-79/ 

48.3.4, Feb. 1981, 363 pp. 

The comments and evaluation contained in the annotation for a similar handbook in 
this series (see item 323) also apply here. However, the information provided in 
this volume is largely specific for OSM Region IV, which correlates to the western 
portions of the Interior and the Gulf Coast Coal Mining Regions. 

327. Hinckle, C. R. , R. E. Ambrose, and C. R. Wenzel. A Handbook for Meeting Fish 
and Wildlife Information Needs to Surface Mine Coal — OSM Region V (US FWS contract 
14-16-0009-79-092, Sci. Applic, Inc.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-79/ 

48.3.5, Feb. 1981, 405 pp. 

The comments and evaluation contained in the annotation for a similar handbook in 

this series (sec item 323) also apply here. However, the information provided in 

this volume is largely specific for OSM Region III, which correlates to the Northern 
Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific Mining Regions. 

328. Hodder, D. T. , and R. C. Jewell (eds.). Reclaimability Analysis of the Emery 
Coal Field, Emery County, Utah. EMRIA Rep. No. 16 (U.S. BLM contract YA-512-CT9-32, 
Geoscientific Systems and Consulting). U.S. Bureau Land Manag. , Final Report BLM/YA/ 
EM-77/16, Aug. 1979, 413 pp. 



148 

This report examines the reclaimability of coal-strip-mined land in the Emery, UT 
coal field. Data collected in the study covered the geology, overburden, hydrology, 
climate, and vegetation of the area. Site specific problems relevent to revegeta- 
tion that were identified included a lack of available topsoil, a potential excess of 
boron, and a general nutrient deficiency in the overburden. The use of fly ash and/ 
or bottom ash from local powerplants was recommended as both a geochemical soil sup- 
plement and a mulch. The report provides data obtained from both pertinent litera- 
ture and site-specific investigations. Much of the data and discussions are specific 
for the study area. However, prudent consideration may allow application over a 
broader geographic area. 

329. Hodder, R. L. Alternatives to Established Systems for Meeting Post-Mining 
Land Use Goals. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land 
Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO 
State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 23- 
25. 

The author provides an excellent overview of some recognized problems in the current 
rules and regulations governing revegetation and control of erosion on reclaimed coal 
mined lands in the Western United States. Directions for potential changes in guide- 
lines and regulations are offered based on contemporary research results. The author 
recommends increased use of proven naturalized species that might better satisfy 
postmining reclamation in less time at less expense. This article was written with 
specific reference to reclamation activities in the Western United States. However, 
some of the concepts presented could have nationwide applications. 

330. Hodder, R. L. Potentials and Predictions Concerning Reclamation of Semiarid 
Mined Lands. Ch. in The Reclamation of Disturbed Arid Lands. Univ. NM Press, 1978, 
pp. 149-154. 

The author discusses several aspects of revegetation that must be considered if rec- 
lamation is to be successful in the semiarid West. One of the most important aspects 
of reclamation is preplanning, which is one of the best guarantees for a successful 
revegetation program. Also discussed is the need for a stable and productive sur- 
face. This can be achieved through surface manipulations and the planting of indig- 
enous species. Effective management is the key to long-term reclamation success; 
without it achievement of satisfactory revegetation will be temporary. The author 
concludes that long-term reclamation success will be possible only if the designs and 
purposes of reclamation are ecologically sound and fulfill a real economic need, in 
addition to meeting the obligations and requirements of the governing regulations. 

331. Hoffard, W. H. , and R. L. Anderson. A Guide to Common Insects, Diseases and 
Other Problems of Black Locust. U.S. For. Serv. , Forestry Rep. SA-FR 19, Oct. 1982, 
9 pp. 

This publication gives information about the common insect pests and diseases that 
infect black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). The information will be helpful to 
individuals attempting to propagate black locust on surface-mined land in portions of 
the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Regions. 

332. Hofmann, L. and R. E. Ries. Comparison of Vegetative Composition, Cover, and 
Production on Reclaimed and Nonmined Grazed Lands. Paper in Symposium on Adequate 
Reclamation of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. of 
Amer. and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 27-1 to 27-10. 

This paper reports the results of a grazing study conducted near Center, ND, compar- 
ing vegetative production, composition, and cover, as well as animal performance 
on reclaimed strip-mined land to that obtained on nonmined grazing land. Equal or 



149 

higher dry matter yields were obtained on moderately, lightly, and ungrazed pastures 
on reclaimed mined land. Spring and early summer performance of yearling steers 
grazing on reclaimed pastures at moderate or light intensities was equal to that ob- 
tained on unmined pastures. Live plant cover was less on reclaimed land than on na- 
tive range. However, live vegetation plus litter on reclaimed sites was equal to or 
better than on native range, and cover on both areas was sufficient to prevent soil 
loss as calculated by the Universal Soil Loss Equation. When cover was estimated us- 
ing only live-plant basal hits in point frame sampling, neither the reclaimed nor the 
native sites had sufficient cover to prevent unacceptable soil loss. This paper is 
an excellent reference for planning revegetation monitoring programs in the Northern 
Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

333. Hofmann, L. , R. E. Ries , and R. J. Loren. Livestock and Vegetative Perform- 
ance on Reclaimed and Nonmined Rangeland in North Dakota. J. Soil Water Conserv. , 
v. 36, No. 1, 1981, pp. 41-44. 

This study compared the effects of heavy, moderate, and light grazing intensity on 
vegetation and steer performance on a revegetated area and an adjacent nonmined area 
(reference area). The study site was located near Center, ND. The criteria used to 
make the comparison were animal performance, vegetative production, vegetative com- 
position and diversity, and plant and canopy cover. The comparisons between the re- 
claimed and unmined sites showed that the productivity of the reclaimed site was com- 
parable to t "t on unmined land, indicating a successful reclamation program. 

334. Hofmann, L. , R. E. Ries, J. F. Power, and R. J. Lorenz. Effects of Grazing 
Intensity on Vegetation and Animal Performance on Reclaimed Strip-Mined Land. Paper 
in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, 
Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Nat. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, 
pp. 306-310. 

This study examined the effects of grazing on reclaimed strip-mined land near Cen- 
ter, ND. A mixture of cool season grasses and legumes was seeded on the study site 
3 years before the study began and it was not harvested prior to the study. Three 
intensities of grazing were tested (heavy, moderate, and light) by stocking duplicate 
sets of pastures at 0, 0.24, 0.48, and 0.72 ha/yearling steer. During 1976, 3,734 
kg/ha dry matter was produced on the ungrazed control. The 1976 grazing season was 
55 days long, and 80, 44, and 32 pet of the forage was grazed at the heavy, moderate 
and light grazing intensities, respectively. In 1977 the grazing season was 30 days, 
and the heavily grazed pasture was left with significantly less dry matter than the 
other treatments. When grazing stopped, no harvestable forage remained on the heav- 
ily grazed pastures. Daily weight gains on heavily grazed pastures averaged 0.4 
kg/head as compared with 0.9 kg/head on the moderately and lightly grazed pastures. 
In 1977 beef production was 55, 58, and 41 kg/ha for the heavily, moderately, and 
lightly grazed pastures, respectively. The article is pertinent to reclamation plan- 
ning where grazing land is the designated land use and is primarily relevant to con- 
ditions encountered in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

335. Holechek, J. L. Initial Establishment of Four Species on a Mine Spoils. J. 
Range Manage., v. 34, No. 1, Jan. 1981, pp. 76-77. 

Greenhouse and field studies are reported. The objective of these studies was 
to evaluate initial establishment of 'Fairway' crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron 
cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), 'Critana' thickspike wheatgrass ( Agropyron dasystachzum 
(Hook) Scribn.), 'Ranger' alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.), and fourwing saltbush ( Atri- 
plex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). All four species exhibited good initial establishment 
in both studies. Postemergence fertilization with nitrogen and phosphorus had no ef- 
fect on the survival of any of the species tested. The information presented in this 



150 

paper is relevant to revegetatlon planning in portions of the Northern Great Plains 
Coal Mining Region. 

336. Holechek, J. L. Root Biomass on Native Range and Mine Spoils in Southeastern 
Montana. J. Range Manage., v. 35, No. 2, Mar. 1982, pp. 185-187. 

An examination of root biomass was conducted at five locations in the vicinity of 
Colstrip, MT. Study sites included native range in excellent, good, and poor con- 
diton; a naturally revegetated 40-year-old leveled, ungrazed strip mine spoil; a 
5-year-old leveled, ungrazed strip mine spoil; and a 5-year-old seeded and fertilized 
mine spoil. The 5-year-old seeded and fertilized mine spoil exhibited the highest 
total root biomass. Native range in good condition had higher root biomass than 
either the excellent or poor condition native range. The root biomass of the 40- 
year-old mine spoil and the native range in excellent condition were not signifi- 
cantly different. Root biomass distribution did not differ between the sites, with 
over 55 pet of the biomass in the upper 15 cm of the soil profile. The results of 
this study will be applicable to assessing grazing options on revegetated surface- 
mined land in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

337. Holecheck, J. L. , E. J. DePuit, J. G. Coenenberg, and R. Valdez. Legume Es- 
tablishment on Strip Mined Lands in Southeastern Montana. J. Range Manage., v. 35, 
No. 3, May 1982, pp. 298-300. 

This article reports the results of a 6-year study conducted on strip-mined land 
at Colstrip, MT, in which the germination, survival, productivity, and cover char- 
acteristics of five species and/or varieties of legumes were evaluated. These 
included 'Eski' sainfoin ( Onobrychis vlciaefolia Scop.), 'Lutana' cicer milkvetch 
( Astragalus cicerl .), birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.), and 'Ranger' and 
'Spreader' alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.). Low rates of nitrogen and phosphorus fer- 
tilizer were applied during the first year of the study. 'Lutana' cicer milkvetch 
and both varieties of alfalfa exhibited good characteristics for the parameters eval- 
uated. 'Spreader' alfalfa was superior to the 'Ranger' variety. Based on the ob- 
served site stabilization, persistence, palatability , nitrogen fixation, and pro- 
ductivity characteristics the authors felt that 'Latana' cicer milkvetch has high 
potential for use in revegetating surface-mined land in this geographic region. The 
information presented in this paper is useful for selecting species for revegetat- 
ing surface-mined land throughout portions of the Northern Great Plain Coal Mining 
Region. 

338. Holechek, J. L. , E. J. DePuit, J. Coenenberg, and R. Valdez. Long-Term Plant 
Establishment on Mined Lands in Southeastern Montana. J. Range. Manage., v. 35, No. 
4, July 1982, pp. 522-525. 

This article reports the results of a 6-year study conducted on strip-mined land at 
Colstrip, MT in which the germination, survival, and cover characteristics of 'Fair- 
way' crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), 'Critana' thickspike 
wheatgrass ( Agropyron dasystachyum (Hook) Scribn.), 'Ranger' alfalfa ( Medicago sativa 
L.), and fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) were evaluated. Good 
initial establishment and long-term survival and growth were exhibited by all spe- 
cies. Initial and long-term survival were unaffected by postemergence fertilization 
with nitrogen and phosphorus. These fertilizer applications did account for in- 
creases in plant canopy and litter cover of the grass and legume species. Invasion 
by native species into the study area was insignificant. 'Critana' thickspike wheat- 
grass appears to be well suited for inclusion in seeding mixtures in this area. 
'Fairway' crested wheatgrass was too aggressive to be recommended for inclusion in 
seeding mixtures where the revegetatlon goal is to achieve species diversity for na- 
tive species. The results and discussion contained in this article will be helpful 
in deciding composition of seeding mixtures for revegetating surface mined-lands in 
portions of the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 



151 

339. Holmberg, G. V., and S. J. Henning. Reclamation. Ch. in Surface Mining En- 
vironmental Monitoring and Reclamation Handbook. Elsevier, 1983, pp. 279-369. 

This chapter consists of two sections, one by Homlberg and one by Henning. The sec- 
tion by Holmberg entitled, "Land Use, Soils, and Revegetation" provides an excellent 
treatment of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95- 
87) and the procedures for adherence to and monitoring under the law. The subjects 
discussed include the legal requirements for land use, premining land-use planning, 
postmining land-use monitoring, the legal requirements for soil (other than prime 
farmland), steps in monitoring topsoil, mine soil interpretation, mine soil evalua- 
tion, monitoring and inventory of baseline data for the mining plan, minesoil manage- 
ment, topsoil storage, topsoil redistribution, monitoring the handling of soils and 
overburden, mine soil analysis after reconstruction, postmining mine soil develop- 
ment, site conditions and animal habitat, factors involved in overcorapetition and 
measurement of compaction, the legal requirements for revegetation, plant species 
selection, use of introduced species, timing the revegetation process, soil stabili- 
zation, livestock grazing on revegetated mined lands, assessment of revegetation suc- 
cess, and soil erosion. As the title of the book implies, its purpose is to act as 
a handbook for environmental monitoring and reclamation. The chapter reviewed here 
follows this format. It includes literature reviews for the topics discussed and 
provides an excellent source for planning monitoring activities and for establishing 
criteria for assessing proposed reclamation plans. This reference has been rated 
"good" for numerous keywords used and is designed specifically for broad national ap- 
plication. It suggests approaches to answering questions about some of these sub- 
jects; however, it stops short of providing clearcut solutions. It does provide 
potential sources of pertinent information that could aid in treating specific prob- 
lems. The section by Henning more specifically discusses prime farmland and factors 
that must be considered in returning surface-mined areas to crop production. It out- 
lines methods for assessing crop production. A method using available soil survey 
information of soils present before mining to determine the success of production is 
presented. Since this section is designed for broad national application, its treat- 
ment of most key subject areas is general in nature. However, it provides potential 
sources of pertinent information that could aid in treating specific problems. The 
two sections comprising the chapter discussed here provide an excellent source of 
background information for individuals concerned with compliance to state and Federal 
regulations controlling reclamation of surface-mined lands . 

340. Holt, H. A., and W. D. Schrand. Herbicide Characteristics Adaptable to Re- 
claimed Mine Land. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees 
(cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. 
Coll., Terre Hautei IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, 
pp. 140-145. 

The authors discuss important plant and herbicide factors that must be considered 
in developing a successful vegetation control program. They present an excellent 
summary of herbicide characteristics useful for weed control on reclaimed land. 
Numerous herbicides are reviewed, and their mode of action, mode of application, tox- 
icity range, and persistence are considered. This paper is a good reference for 
herbicide use in mineland reclamation. It provides useful information for planning 
reclamation activities. No specific coal region is identified by the authors. The 
information offered would be applicable in all the coal mining regions considered in 
this evaluation process and for most lands uses considered. 

341. Hons, F. M. , P. E. Askenasy, L. R. Hossner, and E. L. Whitelly. Physical and 
Chemical Properties of Lignite Spoil Material as It Influences Successful Revegeta- 
tion. Paper in Proceedings Gulf Coast Lignite Conference: Geology, Utilization, and 
Environmental Aspects (Austin, TX, June 2-4, 1976). Bur. Econ. Geol. , Univ. TX, Aus- 
tin, TX, 1978, pp. 209-217. 



152 

This research was done to determine the feasibility of producing agricultural crops 
on lignite spoil in Freestone County, TX. Of particular interest were the spoil 
physical and chemical properties which affect revegetation. The spoil material was 
found to contain adequate amounts of calciiim, magnesium, and potassium for sustained 
plant growth (6,000, 500, and 300 kg/ha, respectively). However, nitrogen and phos- 
phorus must be added to achieve revegetation. The biological oxidation of ammonium 
to nitrate by nitrification is restricted in these mine soils. This indicates that 
the use and efficiency of added forms of ammonium fertilizers is restricted. Up 
to 50 pet of applied nitrogen is unavailable to plants because of the low use effi- 
ciency. Of the forage grasses and legumes tested, Coastal bermudagrass ( Cynodon 
dactylon (L.) Pers.), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge) , kleingrass (Panlcum 
coloratura L.), NK-37 (a nonrhizomatous variety of common bermudagrass), 'Yuchi' ar- 
rowleaf clover ( Trifolium vesiculosum Savi.), crimson clover ( Trifolium incarnatum 
L.), and alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) were established successfully in fertility tri- 
als. Corn (Zea mays L.), grain sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.), and soybeans 
(Glycine max (L.) Merr.) were also established, with grain sorghum being the most 
promising of the row crops from an economic viewpoint. With proper fertilization and 
management, the yield potential of forage grasses, legumes, and grain sorghum on 
mined soil appears to be excellent. 

342. Hons, F. M. , and L. R. Hossner. Soil Nitrogen Relationships in Spoil Mate- 
rial Generated by the Surface Mining of Lignite Coal. Soil Sci., v. 129, No. 4, 
1980, pp. 222-228. 

This study was done to quantify the nitrogen relationship of surface-mined soils near 
Fairfield, TX. Soil samples were taken from spoil materials to a depth of 15 cm from 
four sites: an area mined in 1972, one mined in 1973, one mined in 1975, and an ad- 
jacent unmined site (reference area). Soils were evaluated for nitrification poten- 
tials and retention of nonexchangeable ammonium nitrogen. Of the 100 ppm NH4''' nitro- 
gen applied, the minesoils nitrified only 7 pet while the unmined site nitrified 93 
pet. The low nitrification potentials of the mined sites were attributed to the lack 
of soil microorganisms and an acidic pH. Mine soils exhibited a large nonexchange- 
able NH4''' nitrogen. Based on this nonexchangeable retention capacity of the soils, 
the 1972, 1973, and 1975 spoils have a theoretical capacity to convert 2,430, 1,282, 
and 1,326 kg of NH4"*' nitrogen, respectively, into a nonexchangeable form. The au- 
thors concluded that the conversion of applied NH4''' nitrogen to nonexchangeable forms 
in mine soils, along with their low nitrification potentials, may result in an inef- 
ficient use of applied NH4"'" nitrogen fertilizers and a decreased reclamation poten- 
tial of planted crop species. 

343. Hons, F. M. , L. R. Hossner, and E. L. Whiteley. Reclamation and Yield Poten- 
tial of Various Forages on Surface Mined Soil. Ch. 4 in Reclamation of Surface Mined 
Lignite Spoil in Texas, ed. by L. R. Hossner. TX A & M Univ. System, Rep. RM-10, 
1978, pp. 36-47. 

A 3-year study was conducted in Freestone County, TX, to determine the yield poten- 
tial and fertilizer requirements of grass and legume forages planted on surface coal 
mine spoils. Grass species included 'NK-37' bermudagrass ( Cynodon dactylon (L.) 
Pers.). bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge), 'coastal' bermudagrass and kleingrass 
( Panicum coloratura L.); legumes included 'Yuchi' arrowleaf clover ( Trifolium 
vesiculosum Savi.), crirason clover (Trifoliura incarnatum L.), and alfalfa ( Medicago 
sativa L.). Generally, the soil required only N and P fertilization to provide 
proper nutrients for all test species. Besides moisture, which was found to be a ma- 
jor yield determining factor, N fertilizer had the greatest affect on grass produc- 
tion and P fertilizer affected the legume production more than the N treatment. 
Kleingrass and Coastal bermudagrass were the highest yielding grasses, and Yuchi 
arrowleaf clover was the raost productive legurae in the study. The NO3" form of N 



153 

fertilizer was more effective with grasses than the NH4"'' form because of higher NO3" 
mobility. It was also more effective in dry years. This article is particularly 
applicable to Texas, but the procedures used have application nationwide. 

344. Howard, C, and S. Regele. Reclamation Monitoring — Its Purpose and Scope. 
Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining' and Reclamation on the 
Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Bil- 
lings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 330-334. 

The authors discuss the reclamation monitoring program implemented by the Montana 
Department of State Lands at four of the larger coal mines in eastern Montana. An 
analysis of the data gathered through this program indicates that the majority of 
areas reclaimed during the mid-1970' s tend to have a vegetative cover dominated by 
introduced plant species and limited diversity. More recently reclaimed areas ap- 
peared to be developing vegetative covers dominated by native species. 

345. Howard, G. S., G. E. Schuman, and F. Rauzi. Growth of Selected Plants on 
Wyoming Surface-Mined Soils and Flyash. J. Range Manage., v. 30, No. 4, July 1977, 
pp. 306-310. 

This greenhouse study was initiated to determine potential plant growth on three 
surface-mined soils and their overburden materials, and on flyash, under controlled 
soil moisture and temperature conditions. Topsoil and overburden were collected at 
three mine sites near Gillete, Hanna, and Shirley Basin, WY, and the flyash was col- 
lected from the Dave Johnson power-generating plant at Glenrock, WY. Various combi- 
nations of topsoil, overburden, fertilizer, sludge, manure, and flyash were used. 
Neither the topsoil nor the overburden materials had detrimental effects on plant 
growth under nonlimiting conditions. Forage plants and range shrubs benefited from 
the addition of 67 kg/ha nitrogen and/or phosphorus. Additions of sewage sludge or 
manure also increased the growth of the plant species. This study also indicated 
that certain mixtures of flyash in soil and sludge can be successfully revegetated. 

346. Hughes, T. H. , E. A. Cross, F. C. Gabrielson, and D. K. Bradshaw. Some Ef- 
fects of Spoil Composition and Mulch Types on Erosion in Walker County, AL. Abstract 
of paper presented at the Meeting of the American Council for Reclamation Research 
(Univ. AL, Sept. 19-20, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, pp. 61-64. 

The authors developed this experiment to test the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) 
on coal strip mine soil. The USLE was developed for common agricultural conditions 
and was found to greatly underestimate erosion on topsoil and topsoil-shale mixes, 
but it did predict erosion on shale plots. Mulch treatments (followed by revegeta- 
tion) included wood fiber, paper-slag, hardwood bark, pine bark, organic compost, and 
no treatment. The barks provided the best erosion control, but the other mulches 
provided the best plant growth. 

347. Humphries, H. B., and D. 0. Meeker. Alternative Systems for Determining 
Post-Mining Land Use. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: 
Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). 
CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, 
pp. 6-13. 

The problem of determining postmine land use is addressed and some general recommen- 
dations on land use and classification are provided. The authors present an analysis 
of various land classification systems and discuss the relationship of land classifi- 
cation to land use capabilities and the concepts of land use and potential land use. 
These discussions are presented within the framework of present Federal and state 
regulations. This paper provides a good reference on land classification and land 
use that is pertinent to mineland reclamation not only in the North Great Plains and 
Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions, but nationwide as well. 



154 

348. Hunt, C. M. , and S. P. Shaw. Superior Wildlife Plants for Disturbed Sites. 
Paper in Addendum to Proceedings of a Sjnnposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife 
Needs in the Eastern United States (WV Univ., Apr. 1979). U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Serv. FWS/OBS-78/81A, 1978, pp. 119-122. 

This paper discusses the need for developing genetically superior plants for wildlife 
on disturbed sites. The discussion is applicable to both the Eastern and Interior 
Coal Regions because the species that are used in the genetic screenings are found 
in both regions. Thirty-four woody plants are rated in terms of importance as food 
producers for wildlife. Additional advantages to wildlife could be gained through 
genetic selection and breeding programs of species that are to be used for disturbed 
site plantings. 

349. Hunter, D. H. , W. J. Ruzzo, and J. L. Balzer. Reference Areas Versus His- 
toric Record — A Comparative Analysis. Paper in Symposixim on Western Coal Mining Reg- 
ulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, 
CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, 
Aug. 1983, pp. 87-92. 

This article provides an excellent comparison of two currently available methods for 
comparing premining and postmining vegetation to determine revegetation success. The 
reference area and historical record methods were compared by ecological, managerial, 
and economic criteria. Based on ecological and managerial criteria, the historical 
record approach was more advantageous. In addition, the extended historical record 
programs were less costly than all reference area programs. The authors note that 
the historical records method is constrained by limited sampling flexibility since it 
requires all vegetation data to be collected using the same sampling methods. This 
article provides an excellent reference for designing reclamation monitoring pro- 
grams. It was written with special reference to the Western United States. However, 
the evaluation presented is applicable nationwide. 

350. Hutchinson, T. , and A. Kuja. The Use of Acid Tolerant Native Grasses for 
Reclamation of Mine Tailings. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 
2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 
June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 1012-1016. 

This article describes a greenhouse study to select plant species naturally occurring 
on extremely acid areas and testing their survivability on tailings from mines in the 
Yukon and in Sudbury, Ontario. The plants tested were collected from the Smoking 
Hills area on Cape Bathurst in the Canadian western arctic. These species included 
tufted hairgrass ( Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv.), alpine sweetgrass ( Hierochloe 
aplina (Sw.) R. & S.), polargrass ( Arctagrostis latifolia (R. Br.) Griseb.), Bige- 
low's carex (Carex bigelowii Torr.), and Aluetian mugwort (Artemisia tilesii Ledeb.). 
Tailings material had pH values ranging from 1.4 to 9.1. The species were tested for 
their ability to grow without amendment. Since this is an interim report, no firm 
conclusions were offered. The results reported indicate that, even on the most un- 
favorable tailings sites having both high acidity and metal toxicity problems, native 
species, if carefully selected and tested, could probably be used for revegetation. 
The species discussed and the results obtained may be specific for Canada and perhaps 
Alaska. However, the approach would appear valid for application to revegetating 
problem areas regardless of their location. 

351. Hutnik, R. J. Hardwood Regeneration on Disturbed Sites. Paper in 1983 
Penn State Forestry Issues Conference Proceedings of "Regenerating Hardwood Stands" 
(University Park, PA, Mar. 15-16, 1983). PA State Univ., University Park, PA, 1983, 
pp. 182-189. 

This article summarizes recent data on hardwood tree species establishment on strip- 
mined land in Pennsylvania. The article is divided into three sections and contains 



155 

information on the invasion of mined land by hardwood species, plantings made on 
orphan spoil banks, and current reclamation practices in Pennsylvania which utilize 
hardwood species. The author emphasizes the important role that hardwoods play in 
revegetating disturbed land in Pennsylvania. 

352. Imes, A. C. , and M. K. Wall. Governmental Regulation of Reclamation in the 
Western United States: An Ecological Perspective. Reclam. Rev., v. 1, 1978, pp. 75- 
88. 

This paper provides an interpretation of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation 
Act of 1977 in the context of western coal development. The authors focus on the 
administrative structure and the perfomance standards established by this law. The 
development of State mining and reclamation regulatory programs and their roles are 
examined. This article has been included in the bibliography for its value as a his- 
torical perspective. 

353. Indorante, S. J., and I. J. Jansen. Soil Variability on Surface Mined and 
Undisturbed Land in Southern Illinois. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 45, 1981, pp. 564- 
568. 

Five different reclaimed surface-mined soil units were defined to determine if such 
lands could be subdivided into relatively homogeneous segments of soil to allow more 
effective management. These units were compared to three undisturbed soil units. 
Analysis of variance of selected properties showed more significant differences among 
the five disturbed sites than among the three undisturbed sites. Variability within 
the disturbed sites was similar to that within the undisturbed sites. The authors 
examine the spatial variability of selected minesoil characteristics as applicable to 
soil mapping. The techniques used and the results discussed would be applicable to 
similiar studies and in planning reclamation procedures. While the article specif- 
ically refers to the study area in southern Illinois, the methods used could be ap- 
plied nationwide. 

354. Industrial Seminars Limited. Reclamation 83, Proceedings of the Interna- 
tional Land Reclamation Conference and Exhibition, (Grays, Essex, England, Apr. 26- 
29, 1983). Industrial Seminars Ltd., Kent, England, 1983, 655 pp. 

This publication primarily deals with foreign (non-U. S.) reclamation efforts and 
policy. It has been included in this bibliography because it provides an excellent 
overview of reclamation in an international setting. Diverse reclamation problems 
are included. Two articles are included dealing with reclamation in the United 
States. In an article by W. B. Schmidt entitled "Experience in the U.S.A. in Identi- 
fying and Assessing the Reclamation of Abandoned Mine Lands," aspects of the Surface 
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 are discussed including Primacy and the 
Abandoned Mine Lands Fund. In addition, the current status of the Environmental Im- 
pact Statement for the Office of Surface Mining's Abandoned Mine Lands Program and 
the inventory that supports this EIS are described. In an article by J. S. Griles 
entitled "Environmental Assessment Process for Mining Coal on Federal Lands in the 
United States," the requirements and procedures for conducting environmental assess- 
ments are discussed. These assessments relate to the selection of tracts of land 
that are to be offered as coal mining leases, prior to the lease sale and issuance of 
permits under the SMCRA. The ratings assigned to this publication in the evaluation 
process refer to the two U.S. articles described above. Ratings were not assigned to 
the symposium as a whole due to its diverse subject coverage. 

355. Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University. Rehabilitation of 
Western Wildlife Habitat: A Review (U.S. FWS contract 14-16-0008-2110). U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS 78/86, Dec. 1978, 252 pp. 



156 

This publication provides a review of information available from previous research on 
habitat requirements of key wildlife species and on major, successful land rehabili- 
tation techniques. An attempt has been made to bring this information together in a 
single source. Synecological and autoecological information about plant species im- 
portant to the rehabilitation of wildlife habitat is presented in a systems planning 
format to encourage the incorporation of wildlife habitat and values into the total 
rehabilitation planning process. This rehabilitation planning process includes pre- 
disturbance inventory, identifying goals or objectives, preparing the plan, imple- 
menting the plan, postrehabilitation management, and followup assessment. The geo- 
graphical area considered in this review includes portions of North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. 
Consequently the information and discussions contained in this document are primarily 
pertinent to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions consid- 
ered in this evaluation process. 

356. Iverson, L. R. The Role of Pioneering Species on the Reclamation of North 
Dakota Surface Mined Lands. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 1981, 202 pp. 

This study analyzes the initial vegetative succussion and associated changes in the 
minesoil on reclaimed strip-mined sites in western North Dakota. Four reclaimed 
areas, ranging in age from 1 to 4 years since mining, were studied to quantify the 
early successional changes in vegetative composition, soil chemistry, and plant chem- 
ical composition. The sites all had been contoured, topsoiled, fertilized, and 
seeded after mining. The sites were compared to a native, mixed grass prairie site 
in the immediate area. Of the 95 species encountered, summer cyprus Kochia scoparia 
(L.) Roth.) was the most dominant in the first 2 years after mining. During the 
third and fourth years, the density of Kochia declined, while planted grass densities 
increased. Field studies showed that Kochia acted as a nurse crop, while field and 
growth chamber studies showed that autotoxicity in Kochia appeared to be the main 
reason for its decline. A bioassay experiment showed that alleochemics were also 
important in other colonizing species. Experiments with mowing and burning had both 
beneficial and detrimental effects, depending on when the site was mowed or burned. 
Analyses of seeds present in topsoils on a grazed site, an ungrazed site, and two 
stockpiled topsoils showed that most colonizers were not present in the topsoil but 
came from nearby areas. Seed densities in stockpiled topsoil were very low. This 
study presents an excellent analysis of what happens to vegetative communities and 
minesoils during the first 4 years after seeding in western North Dakota. 

357. Iverson, L. R. , D. Szafoni, and C. Grunnwald. Factors Affecting Revegetation 
of Northern Illinois Gob Piles: A Case Study at Standard, Illinois. Paper in 1983 
Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 255-264. 

The authors describe two research studies conducted on barren gob piles near Stan- 
dard, IL. These studies were conducted in order to better understand the conditions 
to which plants must accommodate for establishment and survival. A field study was 
conducted to inventory the plant species present, and to determine gob temperature, 
moisture characteristics, and chemical characteristics. A greenhouse study was also 
conducted to characterize and identify plant soil relations. The germination and 
growth of little bluestem ( Andropogon scoparius Michx.), side-oats grama ( Bouteloua 
curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.), 'Ky-31' tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), 
crownvetch ( Coronilla varia L.), and black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.), treated 
in six different ways, were evaluated. The treatments used were (1) gob alone, 
(2) gob and sand at a 1:1 ratio by volume, (3) gob and sewage sludge at a 1:1 ratio 
by volxime, (4) gob and lime at a lime rate of 1 g/100 g of gob, (5) gob and fertil- 
izer (Miracle-Grow), and (6) gob, fertilizer, and lime. Most of the species present 
on the gob represent early successional species. Measurements of water potential and 



157 

temperature of the gob revealed excessively harsh conditions, especially on southern 
slopes. The chemical analysis of the gob revealed nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas- 
sium deficiencies, along with possible iron and aluminum toxicities. However, with 
proper liming and fertilizer treatments these conditions could be corrected for the 
species tested in the greenhouse experiment. Black locust responded best to fertil- 
ization; for the other species sewage sludge application resulted in the greatest 
production of biomass. The response of the plant species to treatment can be ranked 
as follows, from greatest biomass response to least: sewage sludge, fertilizer, lime 
and fertilizer, lime, and sand. 

358. Iverson, L. R. , and M. K. Wall. Buried, Viable Seeds and Their Relation 
to Revegetation After Surface Mining. J. Range. Manage., v. 35, No. 5, Sept. 1982, 
pp. 648-652. 

This article reports the results of a study conducted near Beulah, ND, designed to 
evaluate the quantity and quality of seeds present in prairie soils prior to surface 
mining. Four types of sites were used in the study: (1) grazed, (2) ungrazed, 
(3) 1-year-old stockpiled topsoil, and (4) fresh stockpiled topsoil. Samples were 
collected from three depths at each site and allowed to germinate in a growth chamber 
for 16 months. The stockpiled topsoils had very low seed densities. The seed den- 
sities on the grazed sites were nearly twice those found on the ungrazed sites. Weed 
species accounted for 43 pet of the seeds from the grazed sites , compared with 7 pet 
for the ungrazed sites. Comparisons of seeds in the topsoil (seed banks) and the 
aboveground vegetation at unmined and mined sites indicated that the seeds of the 
most prevalent colonizers following reclamation were not present in the topsoil 
but immigrated into the site. Several species present in the soil bank were not ex- 
pressed in the aboveground vegetation until 3 or 4 years following reclamation. The 
results of these studies indicate that both seed dormancy and seed immigration are 
important in determining vegetation composition on reclaimed minelands following re- 
placement of topsoil. The results and discussion contained in this report are perti- 
nent to revegetation planning and research throughout major portions of the Northern 
Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

359. Iverson, L. R. , and M. K. Wall. Reclamation of Coal Mined Lands. The Role 
of Kochia Scoparia and Other Pioneers in Early Succession. Reclam. Reveg. Res., 
V. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. 123-160. 

This study documents the patterns of colonization by pioneering species and their 
allelopathic and competitive relations on four reclaimed areas, ranging in age from 
1-4 years after mining, in western North Dakota. A native mixed grass prairie was 
used for comparison (reference area). During the first 4 years following reclama- 
tion, 30 species had invaded the areas. Despite the seeding of agronomic species, 
initial colonization was dominated by pioneer species. Summer cypress ( Kochia 
scoparia (L.) Roth.) was the dominant colonizer during the first and second years, 
followed by green foxtail ( Setaria virdis (L.) Beauv.). Russian thistle ( Salsola 
collina Pall.), and black birdweed ( Polygonum convolvulus ). During the third and 
fourth years, the density of Kochia aided in the establishment of later successional 
perennial vegetation by stabilizing the surface material and protecting it from ero- 
sion. During the same time period chemical analyses of the soil showed a decrease 
in EC, and in the concentration of Ca, Mg, Na, Li, Sr, and SO4. These declines are 
probably due to leaching. However, total N and organic matter increased over the 
same time frame. Competition field studies were conducted using Kochia scoparia (L.) 
Roth, and wheatgrass ( Agropyron spp. ) Kochia acted as a nurse crop during the first 
few months of Agropyron spp. establishment. However, by mid summer Kochia began to 
shade the Agropyron spp. which reduced grass tillering. Autotoxicity studies indi- 
cate that the decline in Kochia dominance may be due to the toxicity of decaying 
Kochia leaves and roots to Kochia. Results of a field study indicated that thinning 



158 

dense second-year Kochia stands to the density of first-year stands did not alter the 
growth of Kochia . Another possible explanation is that nutritional imbalances (P-Mn 
and P-Zn ratios) may be responsible for the autotoxicity. The results of this study 
indicate that alleopathy may be partially responsible for determining the fate of 
early successional species. The authors speculate that the later successional spe- 
cies may be aided by alleopathy since alleochemics inhibited the germination and 
growth of the initial colonizers. 

360. Jackson, C. L. An Update of UBIAD Mine Reclamation. Paper in Proceedings: 
High-Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8- 
9, 1982). CO Water Resour. Res. Inst., CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. 
No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 79-104. 

The author provides an excellent description of the reclamation practices used by 
AMAX, Inc., at the URAD Mine in the Woods Creek Valley, approximately 50 miles west 
of Denver, CO. The sequence of reveg^tating the tailing areas was (1) cover with 
development rock to the tailing material as a growth medium, (2) landscape with rock 
to break the uniform flat contour, (3) spread inorganic phosphate fertilizer and wood 
chips, (4) rip the woodchips and phosphate fertilizer in the surface, (5) spread 
municipal sewage sludge to act as a source of nitrogen and organic matter, (6) seed 
with grass, (7) scatter dead timber onto the reclaimed surface, (8) irrigate during 
the first growing season, (9) plant transplants and seedlings of trees and shrubs 
during the second season following the establishment of grass, and (10) periodically 
apply maintenance inorganic fertilizers. Each of these steps is discussed in some 
detail. Supportive revegetation research is summarized, and heavy metal and toxic 
chemical uptake by vegetation is discussed. Although the reclamation procedures de- 
scribed were specifically developed for the unique problems present at this mine, 
some of the procedures could find application in other areas of the country in sur- 
face coal mine reclamation, particularly where toxic material presents a particular 
problem. 

361. Jackson, D. Getting the Jump on Mother Nature. Eng. Min. J., Apr. 1979, 
pp. 128-130. 

The author describes the speeded-up propagation of native or indigenous plants by Na- 
tive Plants Inc., in their custom nursery in Salt Lake City, UT. The company claims 
97 pet survival of transplanted woody plants produced from their tissue culture clon- 
ing technique. The advantage of this technique in mined land reclamation is best 
illustrated by a western mining company's order for 100,000 seedlings native to an 
area of high elevation and extreme cold, for delivery in 6 months. Native Plants 
delivered, on schedule, in a stage of development equivalent to 3 to 5 years of field 
growth. 

362. Jackson, D. Western Coal Is the Big Challenge to Reclamation Experts Today. 
Coal Age, v. 82, No. 7, 1977, pp. 90-108. 

This article discusses reclamation efforts in the Northern Great Plains, Rocky Moun- 
tain, and Gulf Coast Coal Regions. For each region the climate, native soil, native 
vegetation, reclamation methods, and reclamation costs are given. Also included are 
specific examples of land reclamation programs within each region. These examples 
contain information on site preparation techniqes and the equipment used to prepare a 
site, the plant species and seeding techniques used, and the soil amendments applied 
to the spoil. The estimated reclamation cost per acre for a particular example 
is also given. The article provides a good characterization of what reclamation in 
the Western United States involves and the conditions under which reclamation is 
accomplished. 

363. Jackson, M. R. Wyoming Reclamation and Wildlife Impact Mitigation. Paper in 
the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great 



159 

Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, 
MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 143-147. 

The author provides a brief overview of the reclamation laws and wildlife guidelines 
of Wyoming and how they evolved. Some of the newer techniques showing promising re- 
sults for the reclamation of wildlife habitat are reviewed. These techniques include 
rock pile placement and the creation of surface undulations on permanently reclaimed 
sites, creation of impoundments managed as sport fisheries with guaranteed public ac- 
cess, projects utilizing an off-site location to replace golden eagle nests, the ac- 
tual moving of trees with intact nests, and the issuance of a research variance to 
allow a mining company to leave a highwall and develop it as wildlife habitat. While 
revegetation is treated in only a cursory manner, this paper does provide a good gen- 
eral reference for wildlife-oriented reclamation in Wyoming. 

364. Jansen, I. J. Reconstructing Soils After Surface Mining of Prime Agricul- 
tural Land. Min. Eng. (N.Y.), v. 33, No. 3, 1981, pp. 312-314. 

The author discusses the concept of "prime farmland" referred to in the Surface Min- 
ing Control and Reclamation Act (Pubic Law 95-87). Principal site and soil parame- 
ters and material handling techniques are reviewed in the context of reconstructing 
postmine soils that will be acceptable under the "equivalent or higher levels of 
yield" provision of Public Law 95-87. 

365. Jansen, I. J., and W. S. Dancer. Row Crop Yield Response to Soil Horizon 
Replacement After Surface Mining. Paper in 1981 Sjnnposium on Surface Mining Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lex- 
ington, KY, 1982, pp. 463-467. 

Soil horizon replacement was evaluated at five different locations in Illinois. Corn 
( Zea mays L.) and soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.) response to soil horizon replace- 
ment varied with the character of the natural soil and the material available from 
the overburden. Yield responses to the A horizon replacement at all five sites was 
inconsistent, varying from a strong positive response to a significant negative 
response. Replacement of the B horizon was evaluated at only one site. In 1979 no 
yield response to replacement was found. However, in 1980, corn yields were signifi- 
cantly higher when both the A and B soil materials were replaced. These experiments 
need to be continued before the long-term effects of soil horizon replacement can be 
evaluated. 

366. Jastrow, J. D., A. J. Dvorak, M. J. Knight, and B. K. Mueller. Revegetation 
of Acid Coal Refuse: Effects of Soil Cover Material Depth and Limiting Rate on Ini- 
tial Establishment (U.S. DOE contract W-31-109-Eng 38; Abandoned Mined Land Reclama- 
tion Council, State of IL, Capital Development Board Project 555-090-004; IL Inst. 
Nat. Resour., Project 80.043). Argonne Natl. Lab., Argonne, IL, ANL/LRP-17, Sept. 
1981, 79 pp. 

This article reports the first-year results of a study conducted on a recontoured 
coal refuse disposal site near the town of Staunton in southwestern Illinois. The 
study was part of a larger project that is demonstrating and evaluating new, cost ef- 
fective methods for reclaiming abandoned coal refuse sites. Comparisons were made of 
the effects of four soil cover material depths and two limestone application rates on 
vegetation establishment and growth. Plant survival and growth on plots without soil 
cover material were very poor. Excellent plant cover developed over the first grow- 
ing season on all plots with soil cover material. Plant cover and production were 
dominated during the initial growing season by invading annuals characteristic of old 
field succession. Plant density data indicated that the perennials planted were be- 
coming established in relatively large numbers on the plots with soil cover material, 
although they were not yet contributing to plant cover or production. The article 



160 

provides extensive soil characterization data as well as plant cover, productivity, 
and density data. These data could be applicable to planning reclamation efforts in 
similar spoil material in this geographic area, as well as assessing the results of 
reclamation at this stage. An extensive appendix includes associated laboratory pot 
culture experiments that were conducted prior to the field-plot study reported in the 
main body of the paper. These experiments indicated that placement of soil cover 
over unamended spoil material would allow plant establishment. These studies were 
also used to establish seeding and liming rates to be used in the field study. 

367. Jastrow, J. D. , C. A. Zimmerman, A. J. Dvorak, and R. R. Hinchman. Plant 
Growth and Trace-Element Uptake on Acidic Coal Refuse Amended With Lime or Fly Ash. 
J. Environ. Qual. , v. 10, No. 2, 1981, pp. 154-160. 

This study was conducted to compare fly ash and lime as amendments for acidic gob 
typical of abandoned mine sites of southern Illinois. Using statistically designed 
growth chamber pot studies, the authors evaluated growth response of 'Kentucky-31' 
tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and 'Lincoln' smooth brome (Bromus inermis 
Leyss.) on gob amended with either lime or fly ash. The majority of the article is 
an excellent discussion on trace element uptake of the plants as amended and grown on 
typical topsoil. Lime-amended gob produced more vigorous plant growth than did the 
fly ash treatment; in most cases trace element uptake was greater on the amended gob 
subtrates, with the fly ash treatment producing the greatest uptake. This article is 
excellent where trace element uptake is a major concern. 

368. Johnson, E. A. Trees for Tomorrow. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Serv. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 1-6. 

The author discusses the role of forestry related areas in which research must be 
conducted. These studies are needed in order to determine the long-term effect of 
mining on forested areas and to maximize wood production on reclaimed areas. The 
majority of the paper is devoted to a discussion on the rules and regulations of Pub- 
lic Law 95-87 as they relate to forestry. 

369. Jones, J. H. , F. J. Olsen, and R. E. Joost. Grass Establishment on Coal Ref- 
use Amended With Sewage Sludge and/or Limestone. Paper in Annual Progress Report: 
July 1, 1980- June 30, 1981, Volume II, Research Development Summaries, Final Draft. 
Coal Extraction and Utilization Res. Center, South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, Mar. 
1982, pp. 86-93. 

This report summarizes the results of investigations conducted at Peabody Coal Co.'s 
Will Scarlet Mine in Williamson County, IL. The study examined the effects of vary- 
ing rates of sewage sludge and/or limestone application on grass establishment. 
Eleven treatments were tested. Each amendment treatment was seeded to tall fescue 
(Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), redtop ( Agrostis alba L.), and reed canarygrass 
( Phalaris arundinacea L.). Stand counts, dry matter production, and plant cover mea- 
surements were used for comparison. Best yields for all three grasses were obtained 
on the sewage-sludge-amended treatments. Redtop and tall fescue had the highest 
yields. Plant toxic levels of heavy metals were present in the soils but did not 
accumulate in plant tissues to levels potentially toxic to livestock. The highest 
rates of either sewage sludge or limestone increased the pH of the coal refuse 
material from 2.4 to 4.8. The results of this study are pertinent to revegetation 
planning throughout the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

370. Jonescu, M. E. Natural Revegetation of Strip-Mined Land in the Lignite Coal- 
fields of Southeastern Saskatchewan. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
Volume 2, (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand 
Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 592-608. 



161 

The objectives of this study were to identify the plant species present on overburden 
ridges and Interridge areas of different ages; to determine the effects of age, ridge 
aspect, and variations in soil moisture of interrridge areas upon plant density; and 
to determine whether the disturbed area, or parts of it, provides a suitable environ- 
ment for native prairie vegetation. The result of this study indicate that ridge 
slopes in the strip-mined areas were 50 pet or less covered with vegetation. Vegeta- 
tion on these ridge areas was dominated by weedy, pioneer species including field sow 
thistle ( Sonchus arvensis L.), squirrel-tail grass ( Hordeum jubatum L.), sand goat's- 
beard ( Tragopogon dubius Scop.), and gumweed ( Grindelia perennis Nels.). Cover per 
species was very low. North and east aspects contained significantly more vegetation 
cover than did south and west aspects. No significant differences according to ages 
were found. Greater variety of vegetation and greater change in dominant species 
with time was found on interridge areas. In wet, dry, and mesic sites on younger 
areas, the vegetation was dominated by Hordeum jubatum and Kochia scoparia. Older 
areas supported species groupings similar to those found on adjacent undisturbed 
sites. Increasing species diversity on the older areas was interpreted as evidence 
of succession toward increasingly stable vegetation communities. This article con- 
tains excellent vegetation data and analyses that are applicable not only to the area 
of Saskatchewan where the study was conducted, but also in the Northern Great Plains 
Coal Mining Region recognized in this evaluation process. 

371. Joost, R. E., J. H. Jones, and F. J. Olsen. Physical and Chemical Properties 
of Coal Refuse as Affected by Deep Incorporation of Sewage Sludge and/or Limestone. 
Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 307-312. 

The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of sewage sludge and limestone 
incorporation on the chemical and physical properties of coarse coal refuse material 
and on vegetation establishment. Sewage sludge incorporation increased the organic 
matter and pH of refuse material and reduced the bulk density. The use of limestone 
also increased the pH of the material. There appear to be no adverse affects on veg- 
etation establishment using either treatment. 

372. Julian, E. L. Big Sky Coal Mine — A Mine-Site Study of Benefits and Costs of 
Reclaiming Surface-Mined Land in the West, Part III (U.S. NSF contract APR 76 18486). 
PA State Univ., The College of Earth and Miner. Sci., Dep. of Miner. Econ. , Univer- 
sity Park, PA, NSF/RA-790385, 1979, 202 pp. 

This report presents several analyses of benefits and costs of reclamation using a 
case study of the Big Sky Mine in southeast Montana. Discussions of the environment 
at the mine site, the Federal and State laws and regulations affecting the mine, and 
the procedures and costs of reclamation are included and used as a basis for the eco- 
nomic analyses. Methods of assigning values to outdoor recreation and recreational 
benefits are examined, and values are estimated. Benefits and costs are compared 
with respect to both priority and social benefits. Based on the results of this 
study, the author concluded that with the "best" estimates of hydrologic, agricul- 
tural, and recreational benefits, with and without overvalued aesthetic benefits, and 
with the "best" estimate of cost, these costs exceed benefits by large margins. This 
article presents one of the few benefit-cost analyses for reclamation of surface coal 
mine land in the Western United States. In addition, the approach and methods used 
may be applicable to other areas of the Nation. 

373. Jurinak, J. J. Overview of Soils Considerations in High Altitude Revegeta- 
tion. Paper in Proceedings: High-Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 1982). CO Water Resour. Res. Inst., CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 128-135. 



162 

This article provides an excellent review of some of the fundamental concepts of 
soil, clay mineralogy, soil chemistry, and soil fertility as they apply to mineland 
reclamation. As such, the article is applicable nationwide. 

374. Jurinak, J. J., C. Amrheim, and R. J. Wagenet. Effect of Salinity and SAR on 
the Sodic Hazard of Overburden Materials. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining 
Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 31-38. 

Using the sodixim adsorption ratio (SAR), the sodic hazard of overburden materials can 
be diagnosed by the equation ESR = Kg SAR, where ESR = exchangeable sodium ratio, and 
Kg = modified Gapon's selectivity coefficient. Two bulk overburden samples were ob- 
tained from two locations in Montana and a Yolo loam soil from California. To study 
the effects of salinity and SAR on the ESR of Kg, the soils were equilibrated with 
known concentrations of electrolyte solutions. The results show that the overburden 
material and the Yolo loam soil had a linear relationship between the ESR-SAR over 
the electrolyte and SAR ranges studied. 

375. Keefer, R. F., R. N. Singh, 0. L. Bennett, and D. J. Horvath. Chemical Com- 
position of Plants and Soils From Revegetated Mine Soils. Paper in 1983 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27- 
Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 155-161. 

This study was conducted to determine how mine soils and plants growing in the 
soil are affected by the application of sewage sludge, fly ash, and chicken manure. 
The effects were measured by yield and chemical analyses for nutrients and heavy met- 
als. Three abandoned mine sites located in Preston and Monongalia Counties, WV, were 
used for this study. Each site was treated as follows: (1) 0, 22.4, or 44.8 t/ha 
chicken manure, (2) 0, 13.4, or 27 t/ha fly ash, and (3) 0, 45, or 90 t/ha sewage 
sludge. Following the application of these amendments, alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. ) 
and sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don) were seeded onto the 
sites. Sewage sludge and chicken manure applications did not affect plant growth. 
Sludge applications increased the P, Ca, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd concentrations in 
the mine soils. In general, soil P and exchangeable Ca concentrations were increased 
by applying any of the three byproducts onto the mine soil used in this study. 
Legume P and K concentrations were increased by chicken manure applications. The 
differences that were found in legume growth among the three sites were related to 
the properties of the mine soils. The authors conclude that plant growth is limited 
whenever soils contain high total S (>0.3 pet), exchangeable Al ( >2 meg/100 g), and 
extractable Mn ( >30 ppm) along with low pH (<4.0). 

376. Keeney, T. A., and D. Coyer. Valuation of Surface Mining Design To Improve 
Post-Mining Land Resources. Paper in Conference on the Economics of Mined-Land Rec- 
lamation (cosponsored by the Land Reclam. Prog., Argonne Natl. Lab. and U.S. Dept. 
of Energy, Chicago, IL, Sept. 1-2, 1981). Argonne Natl. Lab., Argonne, IL, ANL/LRP- 
TM-20, Sept. 1981, pp. 123-146. 

This paper presents an economic analysis of montaintop removal mining. The authors 
incorporate the concept of selective placement of spoil material to improve the agri- 
cultural potential of the site. They stress that the implementation of these recla- 
mation techniques could result in land more adaptable to a use with higher economic 
returns, thus enhancing the postmining land value and increasing total returns. The 
concepts and discussions contained in this article are specific for the Eastern Coal 
Mining Region. Since this report deals with a computer model and not an actual field 
study, the ratings for the keywords used in the evaluation process represent the ap- 
parent treatment of these subject areas in the analysis. 

377. Kelley, N. A. Vegetational Stabilization of Uranium Spoil Areas, Grants, New 
Mexico. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. NM, Albuquerque, NM, 1978, 89 pp. 



163 

This study examined physical and chemical factors of uranium mine and mill tail- 
ings affecting vegetative stabilization. Analyses were done for selected trace ele- 
ments in mill tailing material and associated vegetation from piles in New Mexico, 
Colorado, and Utah. Uptake and concentration of toxic elements by plants growing on 
specific spoil material were reported. Specific geologic material was identified for 
segregation and placement on the surface of dumps to reduce problems of revegetation. 
This was verified by a pilot revegetation project examining reestablishment of native 
vegetation on mine waste material. While this study specifically deals with revege- 
tation of uranium spoils, much of the information is applicable to surface coal mine 
reclamation activities. 

378. Kelly, A. W. , Jr. The Role of West Virginia's Division of Forestry. Paper 
in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Serv. , Gen. 
Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 63-64. 

The author discusses the use of trees for reclaiming mined land in West Virginia. 
A general discussion is presented on the establishment of a quick, herbaceous cover 
followed by tree plantings. The author feels that this is the most reasonable and 
equitable procedure for West Virginia. However, there is a need to accelerate the 
conversion from cover crops to a productive forest. 

379. Kelly, W. Evaluation of the Environmental Effects of Western Surface Coal 
Mining Volume II: Mine Inventory. U.S. EPA, EPA-600/ 7-79-034, Feb. 1979, 197 pp. 

This report contains a general summary of information for 37 surface coal mines that 
were active during 1975 in the Western United States, and for 7 additional mines that 
were under development. For each of the mines the following information was given: 

(1) general production information, mine life, employment, and disturbed acreage; 

(2) coal seam characteristics, average thickness, heating value, sulfur content, and 
ash content; (3) reclamation practices; (4) types of mining and reclamation research 
studies in progress; (5) overburden characteristics, pit geometry, and mining meth- 
ods; and (6) equipment types and capacities for major stripping equipment only. 

380. Kerr, S. N. , and W. E. Sopper. Gaining Public Support for Spreading Sludge 
(Proceedings: 1979 Conference on Composting and Waste Recycling — Part II). Compost 
Science/Land Utilization, v. 20, No. 5, Sept. -Oct. 1979, pp. 14-16. 

The authors discuss the problems of public opinion in utilizing sludge as a minesoil 
amendment and how, after one proposed project failed in Pennsylvania because of local 
opposition, several projects were successful both in gaining public approval and in 
reclaiming the mine spoils. The successful projects in Venango and Lackawanna Coun- 
ties incorporated both liquid and dewatered sludge into prepared bituminous and an- 
thracite spoils and seeded a mixture of 'Kentucky-31' tall fescue, ( Festuca arundina- 
cea Schreb.), 'Pennlate' orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata L.), 'Penngift' crownvetch 
( Coronilla varia L.), and 'Empire' birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.). In all 
cases the revegetation was successful through three growing seasons and no indication 
of decreasing productivity was observed, reportedly due to the slow nutrient release 
of the sludge. 

381. Kerr, S. N. , and W. E. Sopper. Utilization of Municipal Sludge for Woody 
Biomass Production on Mined Land. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lex- 
ington, KY, 1982, pp. 313-317. 

Field demonstration plots were established on anthracite refuse and bituminous spoil 
in Pennsylvania to study the feasibility of using treated municipal sludge for the 
reclamation and reforestation of mined land. The studies indicate that the use of 
municipal sludge to help correct adverse site conditions increases the survival of 
hybrid poplar (Populus spp.) cuttings and the biomass of woody species. 



164 

382. Keys, R. N, F. C. Cech, and W. H. Davidson. The Performance of Austrian Pine 
Seed Sources on Various Sites in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. Paper in Proceed- 
ings of the 27th Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Conference (Burlington, VT, 
July 29-31, 1980). Sch. of Natl. Rgsour., Univ. VT, 1981, pp. 103-114. 

This article reports the results of a study testing 12 sources of Austrian pine 
( Pinus nigra Arnold) on six sites. These sites included five mine spoil sites where 
the growth mediums were acid to extremely acid and one agricultural site where the 
soil had a pH of 6.1. Pines from a Yugoslavian source and an Austrian source are 
recommended for planting in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Best survival of Aus- 
trian pine in West Virginia was found at elevations of about 2,500 ft above sea lev- 
el. Lime and fly ash were found to improve survival of plantings on extremely acid 
sites. The information presented will be helpful for choosing species and planting 
stock sources for use in revegetating acid mine spoils in the Eastern Coal Mining 
Region. 

383. Kilkelly, M. K. , and W. L. Linsay. Selected Trace Elements in Plants Grown 
on Retorted Oil Shales. J. Environ. Qual., v. 11, No. 3, 1982, pp. 422-427. 

The objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of boron, molybdenum, 
arsenic, selenium, and fluorine in 'Arriba' western wheatgrass ( Agropyron smithii 
Rydb.) and fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) grown on oil shale 
revegetation plots in northwestern Colorado. The study was established at two sites: 
a low elevation site and a high elevation site. Each site contained an identical set 
of seven 3.3- by 6.6-m plots using two types of retorted shales. Various treatments 
were used and included leaching and different depths of soil covering over retorted 
shales. Boron content was found to be significantly higher in western wheatgrass 
grown on retorted oil shale when compared to the boron content of plants grown in a 
control soil. High molybdenum and copper levels were found in fourwing saltbush. 
Only small amounts of arsenic, selenium, and fluorine were found and appear to be of 
little environmental significance. The authors conclude that the high levels of bo- 
ron found in plants grown on retorted shales could affect the reclamation efforts of 
these sites. 

384. Kilkelly, M. K. , H. P. Harbert III, and W. A. Berg. Field Studies on Paraho 
Retorted Oil Shale Lysimeters: Leachate, Vegetation, Moisture, Salinity, and Runoff, 
1977-1980. U.S. EPA-600/7-81-131, Aug. 1981, 98 pp. 

This report gives the results of a study that analyzed leachate, runoff, moisture, 
and salt movement from vegetated and unvegetated retorted oil shale. Compacted, re- 
torted oil shale was placed in lysimeter sets, facing north on a 2-pct slope. Six 
replicated treatments, four with varying depths of topsoil, the other two being a re- 
torted shale control and a soil control, were seeded with a mixture of grasses, 
shrubs, and forbes. The lysimeters were monitored over three growing seasons. Data 
on percent cover are reported. Recommendations for establishing vegetation on re- 
torted oil shale are made. 

385. Kilkelly, M. K. , H. P. Harbert III, and W. A. Berg. Revegetation Studies on 
Tosco II and USBM Retorted Oil Shales. Paper in Fourteenth Oil Shale Symposium Pro- 
ceedings (Golden, CO, Apr. 22-24, 1981). CO Sch. Mines, Golden, CO, 1981, pp. 410- 
421. 

This study was done to evaluate a variety of intensive management techniques and 
practices used to reclaim processed oil shales in northwestern Colorado. Two loca- 
tions were chosen to simulate disposal sites, a low-elevation and a high-elevation 
site. The objectives were to investigate surface stabilization through the estab- 
lishment of vegetation and to monitor moisture and soluble salts in treatment pro- 
files. Each site contained a set of several treatments using various leaching and 



165 

soil coverings on two types of processed shales (Tosco II and USBM) . After plot con- 
struction, all plots were fertilized with nitrogen and phosphorus; seeded with a mix- 
ture of native grasses, forbs, and shrubs; mulched with a grass hay; and irrigated 
until vegetation was established. After seven growing seasons all plots maintained a 
good vegetative cover. There were no significant differences in cover between plots 
except for the TOSCO retorted shale, which supported less perennial vegetation. Dur- 
ing the experiment the most notable change was that in species composition, from a 
population dominated by perennial grasses to one dominated by shrubs. With the de- 
velopment of a satisfactory cover, surface runoff and sediment yield remained low. 
After an initial accumulation on the plots, surface salts were leached downward by 
seasonal precipitation and did not cause a serious problem, 

386. Kimmel, R. 0. Ruffed Grouse Brood Habitat on Reclaimed Surface Mines in West 
Virginia. Ph.D. Thesis, WV Univ., Morgantown, WV, 1982, 119 pp. 

Surface mining in large blocks of mature forest can, when properly reclaimed, provide 
openings beneficial to ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus ) . In this study, human- 
imprinted ruffed grouse were used to evaluate food and cover on reclaimed surface 
mines. Of the six sites studied, a 25-year-old reclaimed mine planted with autumn 
olive ( Elaepgnus umbellata Thunb.) had the best food and cover, while grass-legume 
reclamation had the poorest food and cover. The food and cover requirements of 
ruffed grouse are closely examined in this thesis, and the data and information given 
will be ver> useful to anyone wishing to reclaim a mined area to ruffed grouse 
habitat. 

387. Kimmel, R. 0., and D. E. Samuel. Ruffed Grouse Use of a Twenty Year Old Sur- 
face Mine. Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the East- 
ern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-78/81 , 
1978, pp. 345-351. 

Flushes of ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus ) were recorded for a 2-year period on a 
surface mine in West Virginia. The area had originally been mined in the early 
1950' s, leaving an east and west highwall averaging 10 m in height with benches 40 m 
wide. The benches were originally planted with black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia 
L.) and autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.). Five transect lines were estab- 
lished on each bench, and the vegetation present was recorded. The results indicate 
that a variety of volunteer species had invaded the bench area and that the grouse 
were equally distributed between mined and unmined land. Recommendations concerning 
reclaiming abandoned mine lands were made. The authors feel that before old surface 
mines are recontoured, thought should be given to the wildlife habitats that old 
mines provide. These areas are valuable habitat for species associated with old 
field succession. 

388. Kizer, G. G. Tree Planting in Reclamation. Paper in Trees for Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, 
pp. 49-50. 

The author describes the regulation incentives that are used to increase tree plant- 
ing on surface-mined land in Ohio. The first step used to encourage tree planting 
was to adapt a new standard for revegetation when trees were planted. When trees are 
planted into an established herbaceous cover, the standard requirement for success of 
the cover is reduced from 75 to 65 pet. This reduction in cover requirement improves 
seedling survival rates due to reduced competition from the vegetative cover. A 
second step is to require a 5-year period to determine revegetation success. Most 
grass and legume species will not last for the necessary period owing to the condi- 
tions of the spoil. Finally, reclaim only those mined forest lands that have been 
determined to be valuable. If trees are not of commercial value it is easier not to 



166 

replace them. This requirement has proven to be successful. Since 1977, when only 
1 pet of postmining land was used as forest land. The amount now stands at 10 pet. 

389. Klein, D. A., D. L. Sorenson, and W. Metzger. Soil Microorganisms and Man- 
agement of Retorted Shale Reclamation. Ch. in Revegetation Studies on Oil Shale Re- 
lated Disturbances in Colorado (U.S. DOE contract DE-H502-76EV04018, Range Sci. Dep., 
CO State Univ.) U.S. DOE, DOE/EV/04018-6, June 1982, pp. 27-44. 

This study is part of a larger project evaluating the impact and potential for recla- 
mation following oil shale mining and retorting processes. This paper reports the 
sixth year results. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate microbial re- 
sponses during reestablishment of plant communities on disturbed sites, (2) examine 
the effect of soil storage and disturbance on microbiological populations and on 
microorganism-related nutrient cycling processes, and (3) determine the effects of 
retorted shale on the microbiological characteristics and activities in surface soils 
placed over the retorted matter as they relate to revegetation potential. A single 
fertilizer treatment at the beginning of reclamation of a disturbed site appeared to 
have a long-lasting effect. Monitoring of nitrification and ammonia volatilization 
suggested that only a minor part of the added nitrogen will be lost due to volatil- 
ization. A major shift in biogeochemical cycling with nitrogen and phosphorus enter- 
ing less available pools seemed to occur as reestablished plant communities matured. 
This paper is an excellent reference for planning revegetation activities and for 
understanding the microbial ecology of revegetated areas. Although it specifically 
addresses vegetation establishment on spent oil shale in Colorado, the results are 
probably applicable to surface mineland reclamation in general throughout much of the 
Northern Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and western portions of the Pacific Coal Min- 
ing Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

390. Kleinman, L. H. Industry's View of Reclamation/Revegetation Success. Paper 
in Third Biennial Sjnnposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great 
Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, 
MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 335-341. 

The author states that premining conditions should not be the criteria for evaluating 
the success of revegetation efforts because they do not relate to the functional role 
that vegetation must have in the postmining land use. "Landscape stability" rather 
than "ecological" or "vegetal stability" should be stressed. The author argues that 
parameters such as nutrient cycling capabilities, nitrogen fixation, plant and animal 
diversity, presence of uneven-aged stands of vegetation, range condition and trend 
analysis, forage utilization comparison, animal performance, and the achievement of 
land use goals should be considered as measures of reclamation success. Many of the 
comments offered by the author could apply nationwide. 

391. Kleinman, L. H. , and D. E. Layton. Reclamation Techniques and Vegetation Re- 
sponse at Decker Coal. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Sjnnposium, Coal 
Conference and Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, Oct. 23-25, 1979). 
McGraw-Hill, 1979, pp. 255-259. 

This paper describes the revegetation program at Decker Coal Go's mine near Decker, 
MT. After briefly reviewing the method of site preparation, seeding, and fertilizing 
a reclaimed area, the results of the program are detailed. Data are given for vege- 
tative canopy cover and annual herbage production for shrubs, perennial grass, annual 
grass, f orbs , and total vegetation. 

392. Kleinman, R. P., and P. M. Erickson. Field Evaluation of a Bactericidal 
Treatment To Control Acid Drainage. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hy- 
drology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, 
Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 325-329. 



167 

Inhibition of Thiobacillus ferrooxidan , an iron-oxidizing bacterium, has been shown 
to slow the rate of pyrite oxidation on surface-mined land. This has been accom- 
plished by using sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), an anionic surfactant, from rubber pel- 
lets. Field tests were conducted at inactive, acid-producing surface mines and coal 
refuse piles at sites in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The effectiveness of 
this technique requires good infiltration of rainfall. On highly compacted sites, 
the overburden may be too impermeable for the surfactant to infiltrate to the pyritic 
material. On more permeable sites 50- to 95-pct reductions in acidity have been ob- 
served. The controlled release of anionic surfactants should be useful in augment- 
ing revegetation and in reducing or suppressing acid drainage from refuse piles and 
surface-mined land. 

393. Kline, L. G. Land Use Definitions: An Exercise in Semantics and Regional- 
ism. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revege- 
tation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., 
Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 26-28. 

A comparison of land use definitions used in Federal surface mining regulations and 
those of six Western States (Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and New 
Mexico) revealed the land uses are typically separated on the basis of vegetative 
cover rather than the actual land use as presently required by the regulations. 
Also, several State definitions reflect State interests by exclusion of uses or vege- 
tation types referred to in the Federal definitions. The author evaluates the dif- 
ferences that exist and provides recommendations that could alleviate definitional 
problems by injecting the flexibility necessary to allow for unique circumstances 
while standardizing these definitions. This article is particularly pertinent to 
reclamation activities in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

394. Klopatek, J. M. , R. J. Olson, C. J. Emerson, and J. L. Jones. Land-Use Con- 
flicts With Natural Vegetation in the United States. Environ. Conserv., v. 6, No. 3, 
1979, pp. 191-199. 

This study was done to determine the amounts and types of natural vegetation existing 
in the 48 conterminous States . This was accomplished by using a computer algorithm 
that was developed to subtract existing land-use data from the potential natural veg- 
etation. This was done on a county-by-county basis. Using the Kuchler Potential 
Natural Vegetation type to identify natural vegetation, 23 of the predominant 106 
types occurring in the United States have been reduced by over 50 pet by man-induced 
land uses. Tule marshes have lost the greatest amount of their original area, 
89 pet, while bluestem prairie and its transition zone (oak-hickory forest) have de- 
clined by 85 and 77 pet, respectively. Agricultural land use is the primary reason 
for the large loss of these areas. In contrast to these large losses of natural 
vegetation, 26 types have lost only 5 pet or less of their potential area. Iowa (8 
pet), Illinois (11 pet), and Indiana (18 pet) have the least amount of land covered 
by natural vegetation. New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada have the greatest 
amount of land still covered by natural vegetation, 93 to 96 pet. The authors con- 
clude that the areas actually occupied by natural vegetation need preservation 
action. 

395. Knuth, W. M. , and E. L. Fritz. Utilization of Color and Color Infrared Aer- 
ial Photography in the Surface Coal Mining Process. Paper in Fifth Sjrmposium on Sur- 
face Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18- 
20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 4-7. 

The authors provide a general discussion of the potential for applying aerial photog- 
raphy interpretation techniques to surface coal mine planning and reclamation. No 



168 

data or examples are provided. However, the article would be very good for individ- 
uals working in reclamation who have little or no background in aerial photo inter- 
pretation. The information relayed is applicable nationwide. 

396. Rnuth, W. M. , E. L. Fritz, J. A. Schad, and W. F. Nagle. Development of New 
Bond Release Criteria for Surface Coal Mines in the Eastern and Interior Coal Prov- 
inces (contract J0177024, Energy and Natural Resources Dept., HRB-Singer, Inc.). Bu- 
Mines OFR 35-79, Sept. 1978, 255 pp., NTIS PB 294 708. 

The bonding and bond release practices in the States of the Eastern and Interior 
(midwestern) Coal Provinces are reviewed. Bonding and release procedures in these 
States related to achieving successful reclamation were documented by collecting data 
from regulatory authorities and site visits. The regulations related to Public Law 
95-87 are reviewed. The analysis that is included suggests new bond release criteria 
and modifications to existing criteria, reviews the applicable inspection techniques 
for bond release, and provides a conceptual graduated bonding system and incentive 
procedures for reclamation of surface mine sites to alternative or higher land uses. 
Numerous conclusions and recommendations for further research are included. A de- 
tailed bibliography and a glossary are included. This report provides an excellent 
reference for planning reclamation activities and monitoring revegetation for bond 
release. The report is specifically designed for application in the Eastern and In- 
terior Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

397. Kolar, C. A., and W. C. Ashby. Reclamation: What About Trees? Coal Mln. 
Process., v. 19, No. 7, 1982, pp. 68-69, 72. 

The authors discuss reforestation efforts, past and present, in Illinois and Indiana. 
Results of a survey conducted on over 100 different tree plantings made during the 
1930's and 1940 's documented the establishment and growth of tree species on mined 
land. Those tree species that performed well on mined land are listed. There is 
also a discussion on present reforestation efforts and research in southern Illinois. 
Research is needed to determine if the same tree species that were used successfully 
in older plantings can be used in reforestation efforts under current regulations. 
Results indicate that survival and growth continue to be best on ungraded sites, par- 
ticularly for oak species ( Quercus spp.). 

398. Kolar, C. A., W. C. Ashby, and G. R. Philo. Differential Performance of 
Trees Planted on Reclaimed Surface Mined Land. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface 
Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 271-278. 

The purpose of this study was to assess differences in the growth and survival of 
tree species planted on mined land in southern Illinois that has been reclaimed by 
various practices. Comparisons are also made with plantings on unmined reference 
areas. Results vary between species, sites, planting season, and year, but indicate 
that extensive soil handling and site preparation adversely affect tree growth. 

399. Kollman, A. L. Field Evaluation of Some Amendments in Terms of Soil Proper- 
ties and Plant Productivity. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 
2, (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 
June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 934-950. 

This paper reports the results of a study designed to evaluate the effects of some 
amendments on the physical and chemical characteristics of the spoils and the growth 
of plants at field test sites in Mercer and Oliver Counties in western North Dakota. 
This study was part of a 5-year project entitled "A Systems Approach to the Reclama- 
tion of Strip-Mined Areas in North Dakota," funded by the Bureau of Mines. It was 
found that fertilizers were required at most sites. The addition of leonardite, 
a naturally oxidized lignite material, reduced grass growth but increased legume 



169 

production. The leonardite decreased the upward movement of salts from sodic spoils 
to topsoils. Plant establishment and productivity were also improved by the addition 
of as little as 1 ft of topsoil. This article provides a good reference for reclama- 
tion planning. The bulk of the results are specific to the Northern Great Plains 
Coal Mining Region. 

400. Koon, D. L. , and D. H. Graves. Five-year Vegetative Responses of Grasses and 
Legumes Planted Under Differing Rates of Soil Amending Mulches on Eastern Kentucky 
Surface Mines. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1983, pp. 509-513. 

This study was conducted to determine the long-term effects of various soil-amending 
mulches on the establishment, growth, and composition of a pastureland species seed 
mixture on Falcon Coal Co. land in eastern Kentucky. The species in the seeding mix- 
ture included 'Ky-31' tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Shreb.), tetraploidal ryegrass 
( Lolium spp.), yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.), and birdsfoot 
trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.). The mulching materials used were (1) hardwood bark 
applied at rates of 35 and 70 yd^/acre, (2) wood fiber mulch applied at rates of 250, 
500, 750, and 1,500 lb/acre composted municipal waste at 10 and 20 t/acre, (3) bark 
at 35 and 70 yd-'/acre plus chicken manure (2.5 and 5.0 t/acre), and (4) 72 yd-^ com- 
posted municipal waste and bark mixture at equal volumes. Plots treated with organic 
mulches resulted in higher percentage of vegetative cover than plots treated with 
wood fiber mulch alone. The results of this study indicate that the use of organic 
mulches can enhance the reclamation and stabilization of drastically disturbed sites 
through rapid establishment and long-term maintenance of grasses and legumes. 

401. Kreammerer, W. R. Measures of Sample Adequacy. Paper in Sjnnposium on West- 
ern Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. 
Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Col- 
lins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 72-74. 

This article provides a brief review of seven methods of evaluating sample adequacy 
as applied to collected data. The seven methods include coefficient of variation, 
species area curve, graphic approaches, standard error of the mean expressed as a 
percent of the mean, Cochran's formula, WDEQ formula, and maximum numbers. The rea- 
sons high levels of sample adequacy requirements have been established for cover and 
productivity sampling on areas to be mined and the effects of using these high levels 
are discussed relative to testing hjrpotheses related to bond release on reclaimed 
land. The author suggests that realistic bond release decisions could be made based 
on reduced sample adequacy levels and on higher alpha levels for tests of signifi- 
cance. This article provides an excellent reference for designing reclamation moni- 
toring programs. It was written with special reference to the Western United States. 
However, the information relayed in this article is applicable nationwide. 

402. Kumar, P., and K. Sharma. Coal Mining and Reclamation in the Alberta Foot- 
hills. Coal Miner, June 1977, pp. 20-24. 

This article provides a general review of the present status of coal mining and rec- 
lamation in the foothill physiographic province of Alberta, Canada. The Alberta gov- 
ernment's overall policy for coal mining is discussed. Short descriptions are given 
of the ecological components of the Alberta Foothills region, including climate, top- 
ography, geology, soils, and vegetation. Current revegetation research for this re- 
gion is surveyed with reference to properties of the growth media, soil improvements, 
seeds, and seedlings. Special reference is made to introduced species and exotics 
recommended for this area. The article provides an adequate survey of the topics 
covered and is a good introduction to individuals interested in Canandian reclamation 
research. 



170 

403. Kunkel, G. P., and E. J. Hinzel. Considerations in the Application of Stan- 
dards for Revegetation Success. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory 
Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 
1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 
1983, pp. 31-35. 

The authors present and discuss the standard vegetation characteristics typically 
used to judge reclamation and provide for the defensible release of posted reclama- 
tion bonds. Cover, production, and species composition are reported to provide the 
best measures of revegetation success. Species diversity and shrub density are not 
consistent appropriate measures of success. Common and persistent difficulties aris- 
ing from the application of various reference area concepts are presented. Some al- 
ternative approaches to the establishment of revegetation standards are discussed. 
This article is pertinent to planning and conducting monitoring programs associated 
with reclamation activities. The article is primarily relevant to the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process . 

404. LaFevers, J. R. Economics of Mined Land Reclamation and Land-Use Planning in 
Western States. Ch. in the Reclamation of Disturbed Arid Lands. Univ. NM Press, 
1978, pp. 68-71. 

The reclamation costs of a number of mine sites in the arid and semlarid States in 
the Western United States were surveyed. Reclamation costs varied from in States 
with no reclamation laws to 20 pet of the value of the coal mined. The need to de- 
velop a land-use plan is discussed as are extraction processes and reclamation tech- 
niques which are designed to create a landscape that will be of benefit to the local 
community or region. 

405. LaFevers, J. R. , and E. A. Imhoff. Land Use Planning in Surface Mine Areas. 
Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and 
Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., 
Inc., 1977, pp. 311-317. 

This article examines the effects of State and Federal guidelines and regulations 
pertinent to surface-mined lands that were in existence or that were soon to be in 
existence at the time of writing (1977). While some of the discussion of specific 
points of the regulations is no longer applicable, the article provides an excellent 
evaluation of the role of land use planning in the reclamation effort. The discus- 
sion contained in the article is applicable nationwide. 

406. Larson, J. E. Revegetation Equipment Catalog. U.S. For. Serv. Equip. Dev. 
Center, Missoula, MT, Rep. 8042 2501, Feb. 1980, 198 pp. 

This publication is an excellent compendium of available revegetation equipment. 
Helpful comments on equipment function, capabilities, and limitations are provided. 
Also included are comparative specifications for rubber-tired tractors and crawler 
tractors, as well as a list of forage plants commonly seeded on range and other 
perennial pasture. The geographical focus of the document is the Western United 
States. However, some of the equipment discussions are relevant to other regions as 
well. This is an excellent reference that could aid in planning revegetation activ- 
ities. The ratings assigned to the keywords used in the evaluation process indicate 
major areas of equipment function considered in this document that are directly ap- 
plicable to surface-mined lands. 

407. Larson, M. M. , and J. P. Vinmerstedt. Evaluation of 30-Year-Old Plantations 
on Stripmined Land in East Central Ohio. OH Agric. Res. and Dev. Cent., Res. Bull. 
1149, 1983, 20 pp. 

This study remeasured 13 experimental plantations that had been established in 1946- 
47 by the U.S. Forest Service in eastern and southeastern Ohio. All of the surviving 



171 



trees on each area were counted, and mean diameter and height of each species were 
estimated. The survival of all planted trees averaged 36.6 pet on calcareous spoil 
and 23.3 pet on noncalcareous spoil after 30 years. Of the tree species planted, 
white ash (Fraxinus americana L.) and green ash ( Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) had 
the highest survival, averaging 65 pet on calcareous spoil and 34 pet on nonealeare- 
ous spoil. White pine ( Pinus strobus L.) had the greatest diameter growth of all 
species planted. Of the tree species direct-seeded on the spoil banks, bur oak 
( Quercus maeroearpa Miehx.) had the best survival after 30 years, 37.2 pet survival 
of all seed-spots, especially when seeded on the south slopes of spoil banks. After 
30 years, the study initiated by the U.S. Forest Service has demonstrated the poten- 
tial of forest plantings as productive, permanent, and protective cover on coal 
spoils. 

408. Lave, S. K. , R. I. Barnhisel, and J. L. Powell. Yield, Forage Quality of 
Grass Species and Varieties Established on Topsoiled Mine Spoils in Western Kentucky. 
Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dee. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 535-540. 

This study was conducted to compare yield and productivity of 16 cool season, pe- 
rennial grass species and varieties growing on topsoiled mine spoils in Muhlerburg 
County, KY. The effects of harvesting grasses on ground cover were evaluated for 
grasses harvested in the May and November. In addition, nutrient levels, neutral de- 
tergent fiber (NDF) , and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were analyzed in the harvested 
grasses. Tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) had the highest production for 
both harvests, good nutrient content, and low fiber. Reed canarygrass ( Phalaris 
arundinacea L.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L. ) , creeping red fescue (Festuca 
rubra L.), and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) also had low fiber and high 
fall yields, but had moderate nutrient content and low spring yields. Orchardgrass 
( Dactylis glomerata L.) and redtop ( Agrostis alba L.) had intermediate nutrient con- 
tent and production, but high fiber. Pubescent wheatgrass ( Agropyron tricophorum 
(Link) Richt.), intermediate wheatgrass ( Agropyron intermedium (Host) Beauv.), 
crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum (Fisch.) Schult.), and timothy ( Phleum 
pratense L.) had a high spring yield, but low fall yields, low nutrient content, and 
high fiber. Grasses in the vegetative stage had lower fiber than grasses in the seed 
stage. By cutting the grasses in the early spring, at the boot or early seed heading 
stage, it may be possible to increase the digestibility and lower the fiber content 
of many species. Of the varieties tested, 'Manhattan' perennial ryegrass and 'Kenhy' 
tall fescue outproduced 'Omega' and 'KY-31' varieties in yield, protein, nutient and 
fiber content, and ground cover for at least one harvest. The results presented in 
this paper are the first of a 5-year study. 

409. Lawrey, J. D. Soil Fungal Populations and Soil Respiration in Habitats 
Variously Influenced by Coal Strip-Mining. Environ. Pollut., v. 14, No. 3, 1977, 
pp. 195-205. 

Soil respiration and fungal isolation studies were done in various habitats that had 
been affected by strip-mining in Perry County, OH. The relationships between edaphic 
factors and soil activity relative to strip mining were also studied. The five habi- 
tats studied were (1) a nonvegetated strip mined habitat, (2) vegetated strip-mined 
habitat dominated by red pine ( Pinus resinosa Ait.), (3) vegetated strip-mined habi- 
tat dominated by black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.), (4) vegetated strip-mined 
habitat dominated by big-toothed aspen ( Populus grandidentata Michx.), and (5) a con- 
trol habitat dominated by beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) and unaffected by strip 
mining (reference area) . Soil elemental analyses indicated that Perry County strip- 
mined soils generally had a lower pH and higher levels of trace metals than did soils 
from nonmined lands. There were also fewer fungal genera isolated from the soils 
of strip-mined habitats than from soils of nonmined habitats. Microbial activity. 



172 

measured as soil respiration, was decreased due to strip mining, while nonmined lands 
had the highest rates of soil respiration. The results of this study indicate that 
strip-mining activities reduce the soil fungal diversity and activity below levels 
that are expected for nonmined habitats. 

410. League, L. Turning Mined Land Back Into Farmland. Am. Min. Congr. J., v. 
69, No. 16, 1983, pp. 8-9. 

This is a general article which describes R & F Coal's techniques to reclaim farmland 
in southeastern Ohio. Very little technical information is presented other than the 
amount of straw mulch that is used in the reclamation process. 

411. Lee, C. R. , J. G. Skogerboe, D. L. Brandon, J. W. Linkinhoker, and S. P. 
Faulkner. Vegetative Restoration of Pyritic Soils. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 
2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 271-274. 

Results are presented on a vegetative restoration project of pyritic soil created 
at a U.S. Army Corp of Engineers construction site in northeastern Mississippi. The 
area is characterized as being extremely acid (pH 2.9), droughty, and severely com- 
pacted. To ameliorate these conditions, four soil amendments were used: (1) lime, 
100 t/ha fine agricultural limestone and 100 t/ha of coarse limestone, (2) lime plus 
79.6 t/ha chicken manure, (3) lime plus 6.5 t/ha rock phosphate, and (4) lime plus 
manure plus phosphate. The amendments were incorporated to a depth of either 15 
or 45 cm, with and without subsoiling. All plots were seeded to weeping lovegrass 
( Eragrostis curvala (Schrad.) Nees) , 'Pensacola' bahiagrass ( Paspalum notatum) 
Flugge) , and sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours. ) G. Don). Soil sam- 
ples were collected and analyzed before and after the soil amendments were incor- 
porated. Lime amendments allowed vegetation establishment on all plots. However, 
the largest biomass production was found on plots receiving the chicken manure amend- 
ment. Weeping lovegrass was the only species which responded to the 45 cm incorpora- 
tion depth. After 1 year of growth, 10 woody species were planted in each plot in 
order to evaluate long-term restoration, erosion control, and wildlife habitat. Af- 
ter one growing season autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), white ash ( Fraxinus 
americana L.), bristly locust ( Robinia fertilis Ashe), and indigobush ( Amorpha fruti- 
cosa L.) had the best survival. However, no significant differences in woody species 
survival were found during the first year between plots with amendments incorporated 
to depths of either 15 or 45 cm. With continued monitoring, deep incorporation of 
soil amendments to a depth of 45 cm should show a pronounced effect on plant growth 
and survival. 

412. Leedy, D. L. , and T. M. Franklin. Coal Surface Mining Reclamation and Fish 
and Wildlife Relationships in the Eastern United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. 
FWS/OBS-80/24 (v. 1, Leedy) and FWS/OBS-80/25 (v. 2, Leedy and Franklin), Jan. 1981, 
75 pp. (v. 1) and 109 pp. (v. 2). 

Volume 1 is subtitled "Past Findings, the Surface Mining Law of 1977 (P.L. 95-87), 
Planning and Management Considerations, and Information Sources." Volume 2 is sub- 
titled "Opportunities and Approaches for Fish and Wildlife Planning and Management in 
Coal Surface Mining Reclamation and Postmining Land Uses." Both volumes are excel- 
lent treatments of fish and wildlife needs in the Eastern United States coal areas. 
Of importance to revegetation are the identification of vegetative types present be- 
fore disturbance as a guide for revegetation and the characteristics and sources of 
this vegetation. This is an excellent reference manual for wildlife revegetation 
planning. 

413. Lekhakul , S. The Effect of Lime on Chemical Composition of Surface-Mined 
Coal Spoils, The Growth of Plants on Spoils, and the Leachate From Spoils. Ph.D. 
Thesis, Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, 154 pp. 



173 

This thesis reports the results of a greenhouse study designed to examine the effects 
of three liming rates and two leaching rates on the chemical composition of spoil 
and spoil leachate and the response of grain sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) . 
Freshly exposed spoil material collected from the western Kentucky coal district was 
used. Crop yields were low for all treatments. Tissue analysis indicated nitrogen 
and phosphorus deficiencies. The results indicated that liming plus heavy leaching 
can reduce the potentially toxic iron, manganese, and aluminum in spoils. 

414. Lewis, B. G. Extractable Trace Elements and Sodium in Illinois Coal-Cleaning 
Wastes: Correlation With Concentrations in Tall Fescue. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, 
No. 2, 1983, pp. 55-68. 

The purpose of this greenhouse study was to correlate the uptake of trace elements by 
tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) with the extractable element concentrations 
of five different southern Illinois coal-cleaning wastes (gob and slurry). The re- 
sults indicate that there was little or no correlation between shoot concentrations 
of iron and the iron extracted from the wastes by dilute acid (r=0.60), Diethylene- 
triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) at pH 6.4 (r=0.47), or DTPA at pH 8.4 (r=0.17). 
Much better "r" values were obtained for manganese (0.94, 0.97, and 0.96), for zinc 
(0.96, 0.96, and 0.88), and for copper (0.67, 0.90, and 0.88), respectively. Shoot 
boron correlated well with hot-water-soluble boron (r=0.96) and acid-soluble boron 
(r=0.91). Shoot sodium also correlated well with water-soluble sodium and acid- 
soluble sodium (r=0.96 for both). The concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, 
lead, nickel, and selenium in the shoots were below reported upper critical levels 
and were similar to concentrations found in tall fescue grown on a silt loam under 
the same greenhouse conditions. 

415. Lewis, L. R. , A. 0. Perry, and J. R. LaFevers. A Case Study of Surface Min- 
ing and Reclamation Planning: South Boulder Creek Park Project, Sand and Gravel 
Operations, Boulder, Colorado. V. 3A in Integrated Mined-Area Reclamation and Land 
Use Planning. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/EMR-1 , v. 3A, Feb. 1977, 95 pp. 

This report is one of a 10-volume series prepared by the Energy and Environmental 
Systems Division of Argonne National Laboratory and the Resource and Land Investiga- 
tions (RALI) Program of the U.S. Department of the Interior under the sponsorship of 
the U.S. Geological Survey. The reclamation practices of Flatiron Companies on their 
South Boulder Creek Project in Boulder, CO, are examined in this case study. The 
purpose of this case study is to allow the planner to gain insight into the proce- 
dures, possibilities, and constraints involved in premining planning in a cooperative 
situation. The site of this study contains a deposit of high-quality sand and gravel 
in a highly visable area, adjacent to a residential portion of the city. To maximize 
use of premining planning for resolution of conflicts over the company's proposed 
operation, an extensive cooperative effort was initiated. The article discusses sal- 
ient points of cooperative and contractual agreements that were worked out. This 
document specifically addresses an aggregate mining operation and subsequent reclama- 
tion. However, some of the information and discussions may be applicable to coal 
mineland reclamation in this and other regions of the United States. 

416. Leydon, J. J. Coal Mine Reclamation in Cape Breton. Paper in Proceedings of 
the Seventh Annual Meeting, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, Aug. 29-Sept. 1, 1982. Can. 
Land Reclam. Assoc, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, 1982, pp. 223-239. 

This paper presents the methods and materials used in reclaiming three mine sites in 
the New Waterford area of Nova Scotia. Complete seeding, moisture, fertilizer, and 
lime application information is related. This is a descriptive account of the recla- 
mation processes used and could be applicable in the northern portions of the Eastern 
Coal Mining Region. 



174 

417. Liberta, A. E. Effects of Topsoil-Storage Duration on Inoculum Potential of 
Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lex- 
ington, KY, 1982, pp. 45-48. 

The objective of the study was to assess the effect of topsoil storage durations of 
1, 2, and 3 years and undisturbed topsoil on the mycorrhizal inoculum potential of 
the soil. The results indicate that as storage time increases, mycorrhizal inoculum 
potential decreases. 

418. Lilly, C. K. , S. J. Tajchman, P. S. Frank, Jr., and D. A. Eckhardt. On the 
Microclimates of Light and Dark Strip Mine Surfaces. WV Univ., Coll. of Agric. and 
For., Div. of For., WV For. Notes, No. 8, 1980, pp. 13-16. 

Surface temperatures exceeded air temperatures on dark spoils (coal covered) by a 
maximum of 34.4° C. On light colored spoils (sandstone and weathered sandstone 
materials) surface temperatures exceeded air temperatures by a maximum of 12.2° C. 
Surface temperatures on both spoils reached magnitudes reported in the literature as 
sufficient to restrict plant growth. The magnitude of these temperatures appeared 
to be related to allwave net radiation and net shortwave radiation. However, the 
authors note that subsurface conditions may also significantly affect surface temper- 
atures. This research note discusses an often-overlooked, yet very important, con- 
sideration for the revegetation of surface mined lands. The study reported was con- 
ducted near Morgantown, WV. The methods used are applicable to all geographical 
regions. 

419. Lindsay, R. E, Evaluation of Natural Revegetation of Problem Spoilbanks. 
Paper in Annual Progress Report: July 1, 1980- June 30, 1981, Volume II, Research 
Development Summary, Final Draft. Coal Extraction and Utilization Res. Cent., South. 
IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, Mar. 1982, pp. 81-85. 

This report summarizes an investigation that determined the effects that natural 
weathering processes and time had on phytotoxin levels in surface mine spoilbanks and 
the consequent influence on natural revegetation. Sites in Jackson, Perry, Saline, 
and Williamson Counties in Illinois were used in the study. Selected physical and 
chemical spoil parameters were compared with measures of vegetation quantity and 
quality to identify factors influencing natural revegetation. Significant regional 
differences were found in overburden and revegetation characteristics. These differ- 
ences are primarily due to the greater concentration of pyritic materials in the 
overburden in Saline and Williamson Counties , resulting in substantially higher acid- 
ity and lower macronutrient levels. The author reports that a classification system 
was set up for the spoilbanks occurring in Illinois, based on successional stage, 
inhibiting factors precluding vegetation establishment, time needed for natural re- 
covery, and reclamation needs. Few hard data are presented in this research summary. 
This classification is not described in detail; however it is a source of potentially 
useful information for revegetation planning. 

420. Lindsey, R. E., and J. R. Nawrot. Evaluation of Natural Revegetation of 
Problem Spoil Banks. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimen- 
tology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1982, pp. 367-375. 

The authors' purpose is to identify the degree and type of natural vegetation estab- 
lishment at four study sites. The total number of vascular plant species found at 
all sites was 96, representing 40 families. The herbaceous species had an average 
ground cover of 33.7 pet. The density of vegetation was found to be related to the 
chemical characteristics of the spoil. A spoil classification system was established 
that will permit the reclamation of abandoned mined land to focus on high-priority 



175 

problem sites, while those sites advancing successionally would be allowed to revege- 
tate naturally. 

421. Lindsay, S. F., T. A. Bookhaut, and G. C. White. Nutritive Levels in Plants 
From Stripmined Areas in Eastern Ohio. Ohio J. Sci., v. 78, No. 2, 1978, pp. 70-79. 

The nutritive quality of vegetation growing on stripmined lands was obtained from 
Harrison and Perry Counties in east-central Ohio. The Harrison County site was char- 
acterized by calcareous spoils (pH's of 6.7 to 7.6), while the Perry County site was 
characterized by acidic spoils (pH's of 3.7 to 4.0). Undisturbed (reference area) 
plots were also established in each county. Proximate analysis of water, ash, crude 
protein, ether extract, cell wall constituents, and nitrogen-free extract revealed 
few significant differences between plants growing on the stripped and undisturbed 
plots. Phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, 
boron, and molybdenum were also analyzed using emission spectrography. Potassium 
levels were found to be significantly higher in plants growing on alkaline spoils , 
while manganese levels were higher in plants growing on acidic spoils. In some 
plants growing on acidic spoils managanese levels exceeded 600 ppm. In general, no 
nutrient deficiencies were found in the plants growing on either alkaline or acidic 
spoil material. However, plants appeared to be deficient in digestible carbohydrates 
on both stripped and undisturbed land. 

422. Loebel, K. J., E. G. Beauchamp , and S. Lowe. Soil Modification and Plant 
Growth on a Calcareous Subsoil Material Treated With a Partially Composted "Sludge- 
Leaf" Mixture. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No 3, 1982, pp. 283-293. 

This study assessed the ameliorative effects of a mixture of sewage sludge and leaves 
on a road construction waste subsoil pile and the establishment of woody and herbace- 
ous species at a site located in Geulph, Ontario, Canada. Three partially composted 
sewage sludge-leaf mixture treatments were applied to the waste area and incorpo- 
rated. The treatments used were (1) none, a control, (2) 125 t/ha, and (3) 250 t/ha. 
Root cuttings of 1-1 Carolina poplar ( Populus canadensis eugenl (Schelle) Rehd.), and 
seedlings of 2-2 eastern white cedar ( Thuja occidentalis L.) and 2-0 autumn olive 
( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.) were planted in the experimental area. The entire area 
was broadcast-seeded with 30 kg/ha creeping red fescue ( Festuca rubra L.) and 20 kg/ 
ha birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.). Selected soil and foliar analyses 
were done along with measurements of plant growth characteristics. Addition of the 
composted sludge-leaf mixture significantly increased the organic matter content of 
the soil. The 125- and 250-t/ha treatments increased the organic matter content from 
0.8 pet to 2.3 and 5 pet, respectively. By adding the sludge-leaf mixture the CEC 
of the 125 t/ha treatment was double that of control plots and the 250 t/ha treatment 
resulted in a fourfold increase in the CEC of the soil. The composted mixture also 
increased the concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus, and potassium when 
compared to control plots. Treatment with the mixture resulted in a decrease in bulk 
density and increased available water capacity. Dry matter production of the herba- 
ceous species increased 5 to 8 times plant cover increased 65 to 100 pet on plots 
treated with the composted sludge-leaf mixture. Only Carolina poplar showed signifi- 
cant improvement in growth due to treatment; shoot growth was increased along with 
larger sized leaves. Autumn olive growth was not improved by treatment, and eastern 
white cedar tended to have increased plant mortality (survival decreased by 30 pet) 
when plots were amended with the sludge-leaf mixture. Nitrogen and phosphorus con- 
centrations in trefoil shoots and poplar leaves increased with increasing sludge-leaf 
mixture application rates. However, the effects of sludge-leaf treatments were in- 
consistent with respect to the concentrations of other elements. 

423. Louderbough, E. T. , and L. D. Potter. Mancos Shale: Physical and Chemi- 
cal Properties Which Affect Vegetative Communities on Shale Outcrops. Paper in 1982 



176 

Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 547-550. 

The purpose of this research was • to describe the chemical and physical properties of 
Mancos shale that inhibit the establishment of vegetation on natural outcrops in the 
Four Corners area. Bedrock samples were collected from 78 Mancos outcrops in New 
Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Utah and analyzed for clay mineral compostion, organic 
carbon, pH, Electrical Conductivity, texture, sodium, sulfate, and gypsum saturation 
index. A hydroponic growth experiment was also conducted in order to observe the ef- 
fect of chemical parameters on the growth of western wheatgrass ( Agropyron smithii 
Rydb.) and alkali sacaton ( Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr.). The results indicate 
that ion concentration alone does not explain why Mancos outcrops remain barren or 
sparsely vegetated. Other factors such as soil texture, water penetration, and aera- 
tion may provide insight into the complex interactions of the chemical and physical 
environment of Mancos shale. 

424. Lyle, E. S., Jr. Establishing Pine Seedlings in a Forage Sod. Paper in 
Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal 
Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Coram. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, 
June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 68-75. 

The purpose of this study was to develop an inexpensive method of successfully plant- 
ing loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) and longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris Mill.) seeds 
and seedlings in an established forage sod. Establishment of seedlings from direct- 
seeding and the survival of transplanted seedlings were increased by removing the 
sod by scalping with a plow. However, undesirable soil erosion and sedimentation re- 
sulted from the scalping treatment. Present animal repellent seed coatings (Endrin, 
Arasan, and aluminum flakes) were not effective when the seeds were placed on the 
soil surface. Pine seeds planted in mineral soil at a depth of approximately 0.5 in 
produced an acceptable stand of seedlings with or without a repellent coating. Seed 
placed on the soil surface did not produce acceptable stands unless covered with a 
straw mulch. The research reported in this article was carried out in Alabama. The 
results are pertinent to portions of the Gulf Coast, Eastern, and Interior Coal Min- 
ing Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

425. Lyle, E. S., Jr., and E. M. Evans. Revegetation of Alabama Coal Surface 
Mines for Soil Cover and Forage Production. Reclam. Rev., v. 2, No. 2, 1979, pp. 55- 
61. 

This study evaluated the reclamation potential of several grasses and legumes, 
planted either singly or in combinations, on four mine sites in Alabama. The four 
sites had varying mine soil characteristics. Single species were planted and evalu- 
ated in Cullman, Jefferson, and Bibb Counties, while combinations were evaluated in 
Winston County. Lime and fertilizer was applied to all four sites, and mulch was 
added to the Winston County site. In the single-species tests, none of the species 
were found to be consistently better than another on all mine sites. However, common 
bermudagrass ( cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.), 'Pensacola' bahiagrass ( Paspalum notatum 
Flugge.), and weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees) became estab- 
lished on all three mines. The species that gave the best soil cover when all mines 
and treatments were considered was common bermudagrass. The authors feel that the 
ideal vegetation sequence for erosion control and forage production on mined land in 
Alabama would be a cereal that establishes quickly, followed by a grass and legume 
combination. Based on the combination test work, the species recommended for fall 
combination plantings were 'Abruzzi' rye ( Secale cereale L.), crimson clover ( Trifo- 
litjm incarnatum L.), Serala sericea, and redtop grass ( Agrostis alba L.). Spe- 
cies recommended for spring combination plantings included browntop millet (Panicum 
ramosum L.) Serala sericea, Kobe lespedeza ( Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H & A.), and 
'Pensacola' bahiagrass. 



177 

426. Lyle, E. S., Jr., P. A. Wood, and B. F. Hajek, Jr. Classification of Coal 
Surface Mine Soil Material for Vegetation Management and Soil Water Quality (AL Agr. 
Exp. Sta., Auburn, AL) . U.S. EPA-600/7-79-123, May 1979, 41 pp. 

The authors developed a mine soil classification system for five soil classes found 
in Alabama mlnesoils , based on texture, color, and pH. Recommendations for limestone 
and fertilizer additions are made for the five soil types to maintain soil quality 
suitable for plant growth and surface water quality for at least 1 year. By modify- 
ing the Wischmeier universal soil loss equation, the authors developed a relative 
erodability index (REX) to predict the erosion characteristics of Alabama minesoils 
and determine the required timeframe for erosion control techniques. Both the mine 
soil classification system and the REI have application to Alabama soil types outside 
the five evaluated in this report, and perhaps could be expanded to soils outside 
Alabama as well. 

427. MacDonald, M. Another Viewpoint. Western Wildlands, v. 7, No. 3, 1981, 
pp. 12-14. 

The author discusses some of the controversy and uncertainties of surface mining in 
the Northern Great Plains. Several questions are brought forth concerning how far 
surface mining should be allowed to proceed in this region. The keys to answering 
the questions posed are regulation, the quality of reclamation technology for this 
region, and time. 

428. MacLauchlan, R. S. The Search for "Workhorse" Plants. Soil Conservation, 
v. 42, No. 12, 1977, pp. 5-9. 

This general article discusses some of the plant strains, discovered at plant materi- 
als centers of the Soil Conservation Service, to be used for erosion control plant- 
ings. A variety of disturbed areas (including surface mines) and the plant species 
used for erosion control on these areas are described. 'Arnot' bristly locust ( Robi- 
nia fertilis Ashe), 'Cardinal' autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), and 'Tioga' 
deertongue ( Panicum clandestinum L.) are the plant species recommended for use on 
eastern coal mine spoils that are acid and low in fertility. No specific species are 
given for use in the revegetation of western coal mines. 

429. Maddox, J. B. , J. E. Brown, and G. N. Bartley, Jr. The Effects of Fertilizer 
and Acid Strip Mine Spoil on Germination of Grass Seeds. Paper in Fifth Symposium on 
Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 
18-20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 245-254. 

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ammonium nitrate (AN) and 
triple superphosphate (TSP) fertilizer slurries and acid spoil on grass seed germina- 
tion. The study was designed to simulate hydraulic seeding conditions and was con- 
ductd in a greenhouse. Six grass species were included in the study: annual rye- 
grass ( Lolium multiflorum Lam.), 'Kentucky-31' fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), 
orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata L.), perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.), redtop 
grass ( Agrostis alba L.), and weeping lovegrass ( Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees) . 
Spoil from a Campbell County, TN, coal strip mine was used as the germination medium 
for the fertilizer treatments. Soil from an area along the Clinch River near Norris , 
Tennessee was used as a control. Germination percentage for all species tested was 
highest with the river bottom soil. Germination of orchardgrass and redtop was 
significantly increased by TSP. AN suppressed germination of all species except red- 
top. Germination percentages of TSP-treated seeds were significantly higher than 
those for AN-treated seeds. Seed treated with TSP alone and sown on the mine spoil 
resulted in healthier looking seedlings than any other fertilizer treatment used in 
this study. The authors suggest that when hydraulically seeding grasses on acid 
spoil, ammonium nitrate at the rate of 112 kg/ha or greater should be applied with 



178 

some other fertilizer amendment such as triple superphosphate. Triple superphosphate 
can be used alone at rates up to at least 336 kg/ha with no detrimental effects. 
In some cases it appeared to enhance germination. The authors suggest that triple 
superphosphate or some other phosphate carrier should always be used when hydrau- 
lically seeding grasses on acid strip mine spoil. The results of this study would be 
most applicable to the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions. 

430. Mallary, R. ECOLSITE: An Application of Computer Graphics to the Design of 
Landforms for Surface-Mine Reclamation. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining 
and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). 
Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 32-36. 

This paper provides a brief summary of the essentials of ECOLSITE, an inter- 
active program for computer-aided landform design. The structure, operation, cur- 
rent capabilities, imminent improvements, and eventual performance objectives of the 
program are discussed. This article will be of interest to reclamation planners 
nationwide. 

431. Maneval, D. R. Update-Reclaiming Minelands in Alaska. Min. Eng,, Oct. 1983, 
pp. 1419-1423. 

This article presents a brief synopsis of the status of mines operating and planned 
in Alaska and the current work in establishing baseline data of existing flora, 
fauna, air quality, and water quality. A brief description of current reclama- 
tion practices and a summary of current research dealing with revegetation on surface 
mined lands, reestablishment of animal populations, and necessary water treat- 
ment processes are included. This article is a very general status report and does 
not present research results. The author does discuss future research and land-use 
direction. 

432. Manula, C. B., F. A. Camilli, and J. Kiusalaas. Site Selection and Financial 
Analysis of Deep Surface Mining of Anthracite Coal, Volume II, Wabash Valley Site 
(U.S. DOE contract ET-76-G-01-9006, Dept. of Miner. Eng. PA St. Univ.). U.S. DOE, 
FE-9006-TI, V. 2, Sept. 1979, 351 pp. 

The economic feasibility of developing a large-scale deep open pit mine in the Wabash 
Valley west of Tamaqua, PA, in the Southern Anthracite Field is evaluated. The as- 
sumed production is 3 million tons of clean coal per year for a 40-year life. Based 
on data provided by the U.S. Geological Survey, average mining locations, strip ra- 
tios, and reserves were estimated using a computer model. This information was com- 
bined with equipment performance characteristics in a computer simulation model to 
determine sizes for truck fleets, shovels, and front-end loaders. A discounted cash 
flow model was applied using calculated capital investment and costs to obtain a 
selling price. Problems of drainage, pit slope stability, overburden characteris- 
tics, and revegetation are addressed, as are details of the social and economic back- 
ground of the area and local land-use regulations. The aim of the study was to 
design an operation that would achieve maximum anthracite recovery and provide perma- 
nent reclamation. A convential shovel-truck system was used. No serious attempt was 
made to minimize costs, but rather to determine the cost of a feasible mine system 
that would fulfill basic objectives. This report provides an excellent sample of an 
analysis of this type and would be pertinent not only to activities in this specific 
area but also to planning in other areas. 

433. Martin, P. R. Wildlife Mitigation in Montana. Paper in the Third Biennial 
Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by 
the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). 
MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 125-142. 

The terms "reclamation", "compensation", and "mitigation" are defined from the view- 
point of the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks Department. The mitigation guidelines 



179 

developed by that department in 1983 are presented. The Department's involvement in 
the Federal coal leasing program and "unsuitability" determination is discussed. The 
author also reviews the habitat recovery and replacement guidelines developed in co- 
operation with the Bureau of Land Management. Two examples of specific mitigation 
agreements are examined. 

434. Marshall, I. B. Sec. from Ch. in Mining, Land Use and the Environment, I. A 
Canadian Overview. Land Use in Canada Series, No. 22, Land Directorate Environment 
Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 1982, pp. 60-68. 

A general overview of postmining reclamation efforts in Canada is provided as a sec- 
tion of a chapter discussing the nature of mining both metallic and nonmetallic min- 
erals. Technical descriptions of reclamation procedures or data are not provided. 
The purpose of this section is to provide the reader with a relatively brief orienta- 
tion statement for factors considered and affecting reclamation efforts in Canada. 

435. Marx, D. H. Manipulation of Selected Mycorrhizal Fungi To Increase Forest 
Biomass. Paper in 1977 TAPPI Forest Biology Wood Chemistry Conference (Madison, WI , 
June 20-22, 1977). Tech. Assoc. Pulp and Paper Ind. , Atlanta, GA, 1977, pp. 139-149. 

The article outlines the use and benefit of both ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal 
fungi for reclamation and reforestration purposes. Results are given of studies on 
coal mine soils in Kentucky and Virginia, clay spoils in Georgia, and undisturbed 
sites in North Carolina and Florida. The studies show how certain species of mycor- 
rhizal fungi can greatly increase tree seedling survival, height, stem diameter, and 
seedling volume when the trees are inoculated prior to outplanting. When the article 
was written, one fungus, Pisolithus tinctorius, was nearly at a point where it was 
to be commercially produced. The studies on coal mine spoils mentioned above used 
Pisolithus tinctorius to form mycorrhizae with Virginia ( Pinus virginiana Mill.), 
loblolly ( Pinus taeda L.), and shortleaf ( Pinus echinata Mill.) pine, with very good 
success. 

436. Marx, D. H. Role of Mycorrhizae in Forestation of Surface Mines. Paper in 
Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. 
Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 109-116. 

The author reviews the role of mycorrhizae in the forestation of surface-mined lands. 
A brief introduction is given on ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae , their associa- 
tion with plant species, and the importance of these fungi to plant growth. The 
studies presented illustrate the importance of ectomycorrhizae, particularly those 
formed by Pisolithus tinctorius , to the survival and growth of Pinus spp. seedlings 
on surface-mined lands . Endomycorrhizal fungi have been shown to affect the growth 
of grass species and certain hardwood species on surface-mined land. The author 
states that there is a need to develop a commercial inoculation of Pisolithus tinc- 
torius for seedling tailoring in the nursery prior to outplanting. Several of the 
studies presented have been reviewed and are contained in the bibliographic listing 
(See Berry, Marx, and Ruehle) . 

437. Marx, D. H. , and J. D. Artman. Pisolithus tinctorius Ectomycorrhizae Improve 
Survival and Growth of Pine Seedlings on Acid Coal Spoils in Kentucky and Virginia. 
Reclam. Rev., v. 2, 1979, pp. 23-31. 

The results of a study comparing the growth and survival of nursery-grown loblolly 
( Pinus taeda L.) and shortleaf ( Pinus Echinata Mill) pine seedlings infected with 
Pisolithus tinctorius and Thelephora terrestris ectomycorrhizae on coal spoil are 
given in this article. Following fumigation of nursery soils, seedlings often be- 
come ectomycorrhizal with Thelephora , a fungus that is well adapted to greenhouse 
conditions but that does not survive well when outplanted onto coal mine spoils . 
Pisolithus, on the other hand, is frequently found on coal mine spoils. Plots were 



180 

established and monitored for three years on an acid coal spoil in Kentucky, and for 
four years on an acid coal spoil in Virginia. Treatments at the Kentucky site were 
loblolly and shortleaf pine seedlings with either Pisolithus or Telephora with or 
without a fertilizer tablet. At the Virginia site, loblolly pine seedlings with 
Pisolithus or Telephora were planted. Survival and growth data were taken after each 
growing season. The ability of Pisolithus to persist and spread to new roots stimu- 
lated seedling growth on these acid spoils, while Telephora- inoculated seedlings 
showed poor survival and growth. 

438. Mason, R. H. Falcon Coal Shines Brightly in Experimental Reclamation. Coal 
Min. Process., v. 14, No. 6, 1977, pp. 66-70. 

This is a general article which discusses reclamation experiments conducted by Falcon 
Coal Co. near Jackson, KY. A wide variety of land use categories have been experi- 
mented with, including cropland, pastureland, forestry, and wildlife. A unique fea- 
ture of Falcon Coal Co.'s reclamation experiments has been the development of a grape 
vineyard. This effort, using French hybrid grapevines, has proven to be successful 
for making commercial wine. 

439. Master, W. A., and J. D. Taylor. Grundy County Reclamation Demonstration 
Project, Phase II, Progress Report for 1977-1978. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-TM-16, 
Sept. 1979, 46 pp. 

Forty research plots were established at an abandoned strip coal mine in Illinois. 
The plots were treated with topsoil, digested sewage sludge, chemical stabilizer, 
scrubber slag, straw mulch, or lime. The plots were evaluated for vegetative cover 
after the 1976 and 1977 growing seasons. Plots treated with straw mulch, topsoil, 
and scrubber slag, as well as the control plots, were monitored for temperature in 
1978. The data from these studies are given. In addition, seven native Illinois 
prairies species were grown in the greenhouse on spoil with pH ranging from 3.2 to 
5.2. Eight native prairie species were planted on a spoil plot at the strip mine 
site. The only plant species showing significant productivity in either of these 
studies was switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.), which dominated the field test plot 
12 weeks after seeding. 

440. Mathews, D. Post-Mining Utility: A Basis for Woody Plant Density Standards 
in Northwestern Colorado. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Is- 
sues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 
1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 
1983, pp. 36-42. 

This article provides an excellent discussion of the woody plant density require- 
ments of existing Federal and State regulations controlling recla;mation activities 
in northwestern Colorado. These criteria have generated much concern among mine 
operators, ranchers, and range and wildlife management professionals of this area. 
The author reviews the techniques and problems of woody plant establishment, the 
perspective of the ranchers , and the woody plants and principal wildlife (game ani- 
mals) of the area. The author states, and shows by example, that by evaluating site- 
specific vegetation conditions and land-use needs, it should be possible to set fea- 
sible woody plant density standards that meet specific wildlife habitat requirements 
while maintaining or improving the utility of the postmining vegetation for livestock 
grazing. The greatest potential for conflict between wildlife requirements and wild- 
life use rests in establishing standards for sage brush density on important sage 
grouse winter range or breeding-nesting complexes. This article was written with 
specific reference to northwestern Colorado, but the concepts conveyed could probably 
find application over a broader geographical area covering major portions of the 
Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 



181 

441. McArthur, E. D. Shrub Selection and Adaptation for Rehabilitation Plantings. 
Paper in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid and Semi-Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Lara- 
mie, WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep., 1981, pp. 1-8. 

This article contains a concise review of some of the literature pertinent to re- 
establishment of shrubs on surface mined land in the arid and semiarid regions of 
the United States. Selection and breeding programs for fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex 
canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) and big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) are reviewed. 
The importance of shrublands and their postmining rehabilitation in Wyoming are the 
primary focus of the article. The information contained in the report is general in 
nature. 

442. McCarthy, M. M. Alteration of Microbial Populations in Surface Mine Revege- 
tation and Their Effects on Nitrogen Cycling. Ph.D. Thesis, UT State Univ., Logan, 
UT, 1980, 149 pp. 

This thesis details the results of a study of microbial activity and soil chemistry 
of revegetated and undisturbed sites at the Decker Mine in southeastern Montana. The 
research was divided into two phases. Phase 1 was a field study looking at the ef- 
fects of revegetation on soil chemisty and microbial activity. Soil samples from an 
undisturbed ..ite and three revegetated sites of differing ages were used. Phase 2 
was a labo: atory study to analyze those variables found during the field study to 
have the most influence on the microbial community. The effects of microbial activ- 
ity on the a ^liability of nitrogen and other nutrients is evaluated, and changes in 
the nitrogen cycle on disturbed sites versus undisturbed sites are delineated. 

443. McClenahen, J. R. , and R. J. Hutnik. Effects of Cutting Intensity, Deer 
Browsing, and Liming on Allegheny Hardwood Tree Regeneration. Can. J. For. Res. 
(Canada), v. 9, 1979, pp. 362-368. 

A study was conducted in Elk County, PA, to determine the influence of liming, cut- 
ting intensity, and deer browsing on survival and growth of tree seedlings and on 
development of understory vegetation. The study site was occupied by a 70-year-old 
second-growth hardwood stand. Percentages of total basal area for the major over- 
story species were 34 pet black cherry ( Prunus serotina Ehrh.), 28 pet sugar maple 
( Acer saccharum Marsh.), 24 pet red maple ( Acer rubrum L.), 6 pet beech ( Fagus 
grandif olia Ehrh.), and 4 pet eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.). Treat- 
ments consisted of two levels of dolomitic limestone (0 and 0.91 t/ha) , two deer 
browsing intensities (browsed and nonbrowsed) , and cutting to residual basal areas of 
0, 16, and 28 m^/ha (clear cut, partial cut, and no cutting, respectively). Mortal- 
ity rates and seedling height data for each treatment are detailed. Results showed 
that deer browsing did not statistically impact height after 6 years, liming was not 
effective, and partial cutting was superior to clear cutting and no cutting as a 
means of increasing the abundance of desirable tree species, especially black cherry. 

444. McComb, W. C, S. B. Carpenter, and R. S. Caldwell. Direct Seeding of Saw- 
tooth Oak on Surface Mine Spoil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lex- 
ington, KY, 1982, pp. 497-500. 

This article discusses the potential use of direct-seeded sawtooth oak ( Que reus 
acutissima Carruth.) for wildlife plantings on surface-mined lands in southeastern 
Kentucky. Sawtooth oak acorns were direct-seeded in the field and laboratory. The 
laboratory situation was used to determine seed germination without environmental 
stress. The field study was conducted to determine the effects of fertilization, 
mulching, and competing vegetation on the stocking, survival, and height growth of 
direct-seeded sawtooth oak. The results indicate that direct seeding of sawtooth oak 



182 

on mine spoil is a feasible alternative. However, a mulch or mulch fertilizer treat- 
ment increased the germination and survival of sawtooth oak. 

445. McDonald, J. D. , and J. G. Errington. Reclamation of Lands Disturbed by Coal 
Mining in British Columbia. Paper in Stability in Coal Mining (Proceedings of the 
First International Symposium on Stability in Coal Mining, Vancouver, British Colum- 
bia, 1978). Miller Freeman Pub., Inc., San Francisco, CA, 1979, pp. 481-490. 

This paper presents a concise overview of reclamation on lands disturbed by coal min- 
ing and coal exploration in British Columbia. Legislation regulating coal mine rec- 
lamation in British Columbia is reviewed. Revegetation problems and procedures for 
two of the major coalfields in British Columbia, the Crowsnest coalfield and the 
Pease River coalfield, are discussed. These discussions contain limited specific, 
but good, general information concerning the revegetation techniques employed. Some 
of the areas considered are in alpine environments and may be of use in limited, spe- 
cific areas of the Rocky Mountains and Alaska. 

446. McEwan, B. Greening Up After Mining. Environ., v. 24, No. 3, 1982, pp. 40- 
42. 

Growing trees on mined land in the Northeast has proven to be a difficult task. 
Hybrid poplar ( Populus spp.) may provide a solution to the problem of tree establish- 
ment on mined land. A history of hybrid poplar development is provided along with 
selected growth characteristics and economic benefits of planting hybrid poplar on 
mined areas. Hybrid poplar may prove to be an effective way to revegetate mined land 
in the Northeast. 

447. McFee, W. W. , W. R. Byrnes, and J. G. Stockton. Characteristics of Coal 
Mine Overburden Important to Plant Growth. J. Environ. Qual. , v. 10, No. 3, 1981, 
pp. 300-308. 

This article reports the results of a study conducted in the Illinois Coal Basin of 
southwestern Indiana and designed to evaluate the physical and chemical properties of 
mineland overburden, to evaluate plant growth in these materials, and to determine 
if any properties of the overburden materials might serve as predictors of potential 
plant growth. No chemical or physical properties examined during the study could be 
consistently used in a formula for predicting potential plant growth. Selected soil 
amendments were tested. Sewage sludge was more effective than fertilization with 
N-P-K in improving growth of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. ) and alfalfa ( Medicago 
sativa L.). This article provides excellent tables of data that could be applied in 
comparisons to other studies or in planning reclamation work on the materials treated 
in the study. 

448. McGinnies, W. J., and P. J. Nicholas. Effects of Topsoil Thickness and Ni- 
trogen Fertilizer on the Revegetation of Coal Mine Spoil. J. Environ. Qual., v. 9, 
No. 4, 1980, pp. 681-685. 

Two studies were conducted to evaluate the benefits of topsoil on reshaped mine 
spoils in northwestern Colorado. A greenhouse study was utilized to (1) determine 
the effects of topsoil thickness on the herbage and root growth of winter wheat 
( Triticum aestivum L.) and intermediate wheatgrass ( Agropyron intermedium (Host) 
Beauv.), (2) evaluate the effects of mixing equal parts of topsoil and spoil on the 
growth of both species, and (3) evaluate the effects of nitrogen fertilization (112 
kg/ha nitrogen fertilizer applied in the form of ammonium nitrate) on the aboveground 
and root growth of intermediate wheatgrass. A second field study was used to deter- 
mine the effect of topsoil thickness on the establishment and growth of a mixture of 
grass, forb, and shrub species. The topsoil thickness treatments were 0, 10, 20, 30, 
and 46 cm of topsoil placed over spoil in both the greenhouse and field studies. The 
thickness of the topsoil placed over the mine spoil directly influenced plant growth 



183 

and production in both studies. As the depth of topsoil increased, there was a lin- 
ear increase in the growth, productivity, and coverage of the plants used. The 
greenhouse study indicated that there was no apparent advantage to mixing topsoil and 
subsoil. The herbage and root production of intermediate wheatgrass was the same as 
when grown in 15 cm of topsoil alone. (The mixture was a combination of 15 cm of 
topsoil with 15 cm of spoil) . The nitrogen fertilization study showed increased 
aboveground and belowground growth of intermediate wheatgrass . This enhanced growth 
caused by nitrogen fertilization could be an additional aid in soil development 
and stabilization on reclaimed mine sites, particularly on slopes where topsoil is 
shallow. 

449. McGuire, P. E., M. R. Spivey, and R. H. Mason. The Palzo Project Water Qual- 
ity Trends Within A Sludge-Amended Strip Mine Site. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 17-Dec. 
2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 57-66. 

This study was conducted to determine the effects of a large-scale sludge application 
and reclamation project on the ground and surface water quality of the Palzo tract in 
Williamson County, XL. Sludge application had a positive effect on the ground water 
quality by decreasing the spoil surface temperature, decreasing oxygen availability, 
minimizing exposure of reactive spoil material through erosion control, and decreas- 
ing infiltration of leachate due to water loss from evapotranspiration. Even though 
there has been a favorable change in the Palzo water quality, the ground and surface 
water discharge remains poor. This condition can be attributed to the untreated por- 
tions of the tract. The authors conclude that one of the primary factors contribut- 
ing to the improved water quality of the Palzo tract is that sludge treatment and 
establishment of a vegetative cover have reduced the potential for the production of 
acid mine drainage. 

450. McKell, CM. New Developments in Soil Amendments — A Biologist's Point of 
View. Paper in Proceedings: High- Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 1982). CO Water Res. Institute, CO State Univ., 
Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 151-163. 

This paper contains a general discussion of several different types of soil amend- 
ments available for ameliorating unfavorable soil characteristics. A brief review of 
pertinent literature is offered for each type of soil problem discussed, together 
with potential methods of mitigating the problem. This article presents an excellent 
overview of this information that could be helpful to individuals planning reclama- 
tion activities, and who have little experience or knowlege of soil amendments. 

451. McKell, C. M. , J. Fuhrinman, G. F. Gifford, S. G. Richardson, A. G. Southard, 
G. Van Epps, J. S. Williams, and G. Workman. Energy Mineral Rehabilitation Inventory 
and Analysis. Henry Mountain Coal Field. EMRIA Report 15 (U.S. BLM contract YA-512- 
CT6-258, Utah State Univ.). U.S. Bureau of Land Manag., Rep. BLM/YA/TR-78/15, May 
1978, 289 pp. 

This publication summarizes baseline data specific to the area of coal deposits in 
the Henry Mountain Resource Area in south-central Utah. Chemical and biological 
analyses of eight geologic cores obtained from the overburden were corelated with 
field plantings on geologic outcrops and representative soils identified by a Soil 
Conservation Service soil survey. An excellent review and discussion of the reclama- 
tion potential of the area and recommendations for reclamation are provided. This 
publication is an excellent example of a premining feasibility study. The data and 
discussion are specific for this geographical area. However, this report is also 
valuable as a model for premining feasibility studies conducted anywhere in the 
Nation. 



184 

452. McKell, C. M. , and G. A. Van Epps. Comparative Results of Shrub Establish- 
ment in Arid Sites. Paper in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid and Semi- 
Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Laramie, WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep., 1981, 
pp. 138-154. 

The authors review various aspects of reestablishing shrub species on disturbed land 
in arid environments. Their studies on the control of weedy plant competition in the 
oil shale region of northeastern Utah are used as a basis for the discussion. Con- 
trol of weedy plant competition from Russian thistle ( Salsola kali L. var. tenuifolia 
Tausch) and downy chess ( Bromus tectorum L.) for 2 years allowed survival of 88 and 
71 pet of transplanted shrub species in two separate studies. In the latter study 
natural conditions resulted in a 41-pct shrub survival. Native shrub species exhib- 
iting the best establishment and survival included fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex 
canescens (Pursh) Nutt.), big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata Nutt.), rubber rabbit- 
brush Chrysothamnus nauseosus^ (Pall.) Britt.), black sagebrush ( Artemisia arbuscula 
nova (A. Nels.) Cronq.), and black greasewood ( Sarcobactus vermiculatus (Hook.) 
Torr.). The best adapted species for revegetation of very harsh sites include mat 
saltbush (Atriplex corrugata Wats.), shadscale ( Atriplex confertifolia (Torr. & 
Frem.) S. Wats), and prostrate summercypress ( Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad.). The 
proper handling of transplant material and optimum planting conditions are discussed. 
The information contained in this article is applicable to revegetation of surface 
coal mines in major portions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal 
Mining Regions. 

453. McKell, C. M. , and G. Van Epps. Vegetative Rehabilitation of Arid Land Dis- 
turbed in the Development of Oil Shale and Coal. U.S. Environmental Protection 
Agency, EPA-600/ 7-80-071, Apr. 1980, 38 pp. 

Two representative arid locations in Utah were utilized to study new approaches that 
could be used to rehabilitate disturbed arid lands. Field experiments were estab- 
lished in northeastern Utah on a site disturbed by exploratory drilling for oil shale 
and on disturbed sites on a potential coal mine in south-central Utah. The specific 
objectives of this study were to (1) develop propagation and transplanting techniques 
for selected native species in harsh sites with varying soil properties, (2) deter- 
mine the suitability of a number of materials for soil surface stability that would 
also promote water harvesting, (3) study the ecology of selected native species in 
relation to germination, seedling vigor, and field survival, and (4) study soil mois- 
ture patterns in relation to plant survival. Greenhouse studies were used to gain a 
better understanding of the biology of selected native plants. The results of field 
experiments indicated that the establishment of containerized transplants was more 
successful than were plantings that utilized bare-root stock or were direct-seeded. 
Planting the native species in the spring gave better results than those planted in 
the fall. Using plant species that were tolerant of the adverse soil conditions gave 
higher survival percentages than using other native species that were not as tolerant 
to harsh soil conditions. By shaping the soil surface to collect water, plant survi- 
val was increased. Water harvesting could be improved by applying a soil surface 
stabilization material. Recommendations are given that are applicable to the oil 
shale regions of Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado or the Four Corners of Utah, Arizona, 
New Mexico, and Colorado. 

454. McKell, C. M. , G. Van Epps, and S. G. Richardson. Plant Establishment Re- 
search on Disturbed Arid Sites in the West. Paper in Surface Coal Mining and Recla- 
mation Symposium, Coal Conference and Expo V (sponsored by Coal Age, Louisville, KY, 
Oct. 23-25, 1979). McGraw-Hill, 1979, pp. 260-277. 

This article discusses a revegetation study in the arid Henry Mountains Coalfield of 
south-central Utah. The climate, soils, and vegetation of the study area are briefly 



185 

described. Geologic cores and soil samples were taken, and their chemical and physi- 
cal characteristics were measured. Six field test plots were set up on represen- 
tative soils and outcrop materials. After ripping, scraping, and dozing the plots, 
they were planted using five different plant species. The sites were monitored over 
2 years. Results of the chemical analyses of the soils and geologic materials are 
given, as well as percent survival and yields of the five species planted. The cor- 
relations between shoot biomass and pH, salinity, and boron concentration were calcu- 
lated. Finally, the difficulty of and recommendations for revegetating disturbed 
sites in the Henry Mountains Coalfield are discussed. 

455. McMartin, W. Western Coal: Energy vs. Agriculture. ND Farm Res., v. 35, 
No. 4, Jan. 1978, pp. 12-17. 

This article contains a benefit-cost analysis of surface coal mining and subsequent 
reclamation compared to the current agricultural land use. The analysis considered 
eight States that comprise the major portion of the Northern Great Plains and the 
Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. The author offers two major conclusions based 
on this economic analysis. First, he states the surface coal mining in the Western 
United States poses no threat to our national food supply since the amount of land 
needed for mining is small in relation to the total available. His second conclusion 
is that the cost of reclaiming mined land is many times higher than the agricultural 
benefits and thus, environmental values must be used to justify mineland reclamation 
in this region. 

456. McMinn, J. W. , C. R. Berry, and J. H. Horton. Ash Basin Reclamation With 
Commercial Forest Species. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, pp. 359-365. 

The performance of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.), longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris 
Mill.), sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L. ) , and American sycamore (Platanus occi- 
dentalis L.) seedlings planted on a 12-year-old abandoned ash basin was evaluated. 
The ash basin, located near Aiken, SC, was constructed specifically for storage and 
filled to a depth of 3 m with bottom ash sliced from a pulverized coal boiler. A 
similar planting was done on a forest site that was representative of the native for- 
est soils of the area (reference area) . Species survival was recorded over a 4-year 
period. Foliar analyses were conducted the first and fourth year, while soil analy- 
ses were conducted the first year only. After the fourth year, longleaf pine had 
failed on both sites. For the remaining species, survival was found to be better on 
the ash substrate than on the native soil during the 4 years of this study. The ele- 
mental concentration of ash apparently had no effect on the survival of sweetgum or 
American sycamore. Loblolly pine exhibited nutrient deficiency symptoms which were 
apparently caused by the high pH of the ash. For loblolly pine, a pH of 7.0 or above 
is considered to be too high. The most striking pattern found was that there were 
higher foliar concentrations of certain elements in the seedlings planted in native 
soil even though those elements occurred in higher total concentration in the ash. 
The authors concluded that sweetgum and American sycamore survived and grew accept- 
ably well on a storage basin of coal bottom ash. 

457. McMinn, J. W. , R. R. Roth, C. R. Berry, and W. H. McNab. Comparison of Five 
Woody Species for Reclamation of an Upper Coastal Plain Spoil Bank. U.S. For. Ser., 
SE For. Exp. Sta. , Asheville, NC, Res. Note SE-300, Sept. 1980, 2 pp. 

The results of a 3-year revegetation study are reported. European black alder (Alnus 
glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), flowering crabap- 
ple ( Malus floribunda Neubert) , sawtooth oak ( Quercus acutissima Carruth.), and Vir- 
ginia pine ( Pinus Virginiana Mill.) were compared for their potential use in revege- 
tating a spoil bank formed during the excavation of a large water retention basin in 
Barnwell County, SC. The best height growth was exhibited by autumn olive and Euro- 
pean black alder. Flowering crabapple and sawtooth oak exhibited the best survival. 



186 

European black alder did not become adequately established during the study. The 
most successful species used in the study were autumn olive and sawtooth oak. The 
results of this study may be applicable to revegetation of surface coal mine land in 
the Eastern Coal Mining Region under similar climatic, site, and soil conditions. 

458. McSweeney, K. , I. J. Jansen, and W. S. Dancer. Subsurface Horizon Blending: 
An Alternative Strategy to B Horizon Replacement for the Construction of Post-Mine 
Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 45, 1981, pp. 794-799. 

The study reported was designed to evaluate combinations of substratum and B-horizon 
material. The study was conducted in a greenhouse using materials collected from 
solum and substratum horizons to depths of about 6 m at two surface mine sites 
in southern and west-central Illinois. A-horizon material or a blend containing 
A-horizon material was placed over the various combinations of surface rooting medium 
in order to simulate field conditions where seeds germinate in topsoil and root in 
the underlying material. The test crop was soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.). In 
tests with the Darmstedt soil series (Albic Natraqualf) from southern Illinois, the 
best performance of the test crop was found on segregated A-horizon material replaced 
over a blend of the next 3 ra of B-horizon and substratum material. Performance was 
poorest where A-horizon material was replaced directly over the B2-horizon material 
(matric horizon) of the Darmstedt. Similar results were obtained for tests with the 
Sable soil series (Typic Haplaquoll) from west central Illinois. However, the dif- 
ference in performance between the best and poorest treatment was not as marked. The 
information presented in this article is particularly relevant to topsoil and rooting 
medium handling and placement for reclamation of agricultural land in the Interior 
Coal Mining Region. 

459. Mecluick, C. Tree Planting Experiences in the Eastern Interior Coal Prov- 
ince. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. 
Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 85-91. 

The author discusses tree planting experiences in Illinois, Indiana, and western Ken- 
tucky. A brief history on reclamation and the reclamation technology used in the 
area is presented. General information is given for tree plantings on topsoiled 
areas, nontopsoiled areas, and coal waste slurry. Suggestions are given on how to 
Improve tree seedling survival on surface-mined lands . 

460. Melanson, M. A., and S. M. Carter, Rehabilitation of Disturbed Arid Lands: 
Long Range Planning and the Role of Mycorrhizae in Rehabilitation. Paper in 1981 
Sjnnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 79-87. 

This article discusses the need to develop practical solutions to rehabilitation 
problems through experimentation and research. Any rehabilitation plan should be 
considered early in the project development in order to ensure proper rehabilitation 
after the project is completed. An example of original research which could lead to 
a practical solution of a rehabilitation problem is presented. A study was conducted 
on a disturbed site (a power transmission line corridor) and an undisturbed site in 
the northern Mojave Desert to determine whether or not mycorrhizal fungi aid in plant 
growth and development. Two desert species bursage (Ambrosia dumosa (Gray) Payne.) 
and creosote bush (Larrea tridentata (DC) Cov.) were found to have greater growth 
rates, shoot dry weights, survival rates, and plant vigor when mycorrhizal inoculum 
was added to the soil, 

461. Merino, J. M. , and R. B. Crookston. Reclamation of Spent Oil Shale. Min. 
Congr. J., V. 63, No. 10, 1977, p. 31-36. 

This article discusses the techniques and practices used by Tosco Corp. in the recla- 
mation of spent oil shale. A good portion of the article is devoted to the physical 



187 

and chemical characteristics of the processed shale. These properties affect the re- 
vegetation of an area. The major problems that have been encountered when establish- 
ing vegetation on processed shale are low fertility, poor infiltration rates, and 
high soluble salt content. Fertilization and mulching are amendments that may help 
to ameliorate these problems. The article also contains a general reclamation plan 
for TOSCO II processed shale. 

462. Merrill, S. D. , E. J. Doering, and J. F. Power. Changes of Sodicity and 
Salinity in Soils Reconstructed on Strip-Mined Land. ND Farm Res., v. 37, No. 6, May 
1980, pp. 13-16. 

This article reports the results of a project involving both laboratory and field 
studies designed to examine upward salt migration in reconstructed soil profiles on 
reclaimed mineland. The four field sites used in the study were located in Oliver 
and Mercer Counties, ND. A mathematical model considering water flow, salt flow by 
convection (salt carried by water), salt flow by diffusion (movement of each kind of 
salt in proportion to differences in concentration) , and cation exchange was applied 
to laboratory column experiments. Calculations using this model indicated that chem- 
ical diffusion accounted for most of the upward movement of sodium in the columns. 
The calculated diffusion accounted for about 50 pet of the upward migration of sodium 
observed at two of the field sites. The authors feel that clay mineralogy is an im- 
portant factor affecting hydraulic conductivity at a given sodium adsorption ratio. 
The results and discussions contained in this article are pertinent to reclamation 
efforts in major portions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

463. Miller, R. M. , and S. W. May. Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project, 
Soil Microbial Structure and Function: Final Report. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-11, 
Feb. 1981, 32 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study conducted at the Staunton 1 reclama- 
tion demonstration project near Staunton in southwestern Illinois. Microbial decom- 
positon rates, respiration, and microbial numbers were compared for several coal ref- 
use reclamation treatments. After 1.5 years, decomposition rates, microbial species 
diversity, and microbial respiration remained lower than that found on the old-field 
control plot. Microbial numbers in the reclamation plots approached those of the 
old-field plot. The information contained in this article is pertinent to similar 
studies conducted throughout the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

464. Mining Congress Journal. New Grass Showing Promise in Reclamation Work. 
V. 64, No. 5, 1978, pp. 28-28. 

This paper contains general information on tests conducted using 'Reubens' Canada 
bluegrass ( Poa compressa L.) to reclaim lead-zinc mines in the Northwest and coal 
surface mines in the Midwest. This species is an ecotype that resembles the native 
grass which once dominated and stabilized prairie soils in the Northwest. 'Reubens' 
Canada bluegrass has a tolerance factor that allows it to germinate faster and estab- 
lish a better density under low soil fertility due to its aggressive rhizome growth 
and tiller development. After establishment this species is able to survive the ex- 
tremes of cold and dry conditions. Results of the tests have shown that 'Reubens' 
Canada bluegrass was able to germinate and establish over a wide range of field con- 
ditions. These tests Indicate that 'Reubens' Canada bluegrass could be included in 
most of the seed mixtures that are used for reclamation. 

465. Misiolek, N. S., and T. C. Noser. Coal Surface Mine Land Reclamation Costs. 
Land Econ. , v. 58, No. 1, Feb. 1982, pp. 67-85. 

The authors developed a computer model to estimate land reclamation costs at 11 loca- 
tions across the country. Costs totaled $6,500 to $8,000 per acre (in 1980 dollars). 



188 

with mine land revegetation accounting for $690 to $1,330 per acre. These results 
are higher than previous studies as (the authors contend) those studies did not in- 
clude nondirect costs such as opportunity costs and indirect effects of taxes, secon- 
dary equipment requirements , and royalties as they affect land reclamation activity 
effects on the minimum acceptable selling price of coal. Estimates are based on cur- 
rent surface mining techniques utilizing standard construction equipment for land 
reclamation. The rationale developed by the authors appears sound and the approach 
much more realistic to estimating the costs of all phases of land reclamation. 

466. Mitchell, W. F. Revegetation Progress in Alaska. Paper in Proceedings: 
High-Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8- 
9, 1982). CO Water Resour. Res. Inst., CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. 
No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 122-127. 

This paper presents a general discussion of the revegetation needs in Alaska. The 
author offers a nontechnical discussion of some of his experiences in breeding native 
and adapted introduced species for use in arctic and subarctic regions of Alaska. 
Specific species and varieties are discussed. The information contained in this pa- 
per may be of interest to those planning revegetation work in arctic, subarctic, and/ 
or high-elevation areas. 

467. Mitchell, W. W. , G. A. Mitchell, and J. D. McKendrick. Revegetation of 
Alaskan Coal Mine Spoils, Progress Report for Research (U.S. DOE contract AM06- 
76RL02229). AK Agr. Exp. Stn. , Univ. AK, Palmer, AK, DOE/EV/ 10256-2, Oct. 1981, 
60 pp. 

This document contains interim results of a research project being conducted at three 
locations in Alaska, designed to establish options for surface coal mine reclamation 
and revegetation in this area. The report contains soil characterization data, soil 
fertility trial data, irrigation and mulching trial data, water quality data, plant 
nutrient uptake data, and the results of vegetation planting trials. The preliminary 
results of a plant colonization and faunal habitat study are also included. Analysis 
of reclamation plantings conducted over a 9-year period at the Usibelli Mine indicate 
a significant decline in productivity without continued soil amendments. No defini- 
tive conclusions are offered; however, the interim results and the discussions will 
be useful to individuals planning surface mine reclamation activities or research in 
this region. 

468. Mitsch, W. J., J. R. Tayler, K. B. Benson, and P. L. Hill, Jr. Atlas of Wet- 
lands in the Principal Coal Surface Mining Region of Western Kentucky. Univ. Louis- 
ville, Louisville, KY, FWS/OBS-82/72, June 1983, 135 pp. 

This publication provides detailed vegetative maps for most of the western Kentucky 
counties containing abandoned, existing, or potential coal mining operations. Addi- 
tionally, details are given on the geology and coal mining, hydrology, water quality, 
wetland vegetation, and fish and wildlife for each mapped area. The information pro- 
vided will be very useful to those interested in revegetating all environments in 
western Kentucky for fish and wildlife purposes. 

469. Miyamoto, S. Effects of Wetting Agents on Water Infiltration Into Water Re- 
pellent Coal Mine Spoils. Soil Sci. , v. 125, No. 3, 1978, pp. 184-187. 

Commercially available wetting agents were studied for their effects on increasing 
infiltration. These included linear sulfonate (anionic) , alkyl polyethylene glycol 
ether (nonionic) , and ethoxolated alcohol (nonionic) compounds. These tests were 
conducted under greenhouse conditions. Soil and water application methods were used. 
Coal mine spoils from the Fruitland Formation on the Navajo Indian Reservation in New 
Mexico were used in the tests. The results of this study as reported are specific 



189 

for the material used. However, they may find application over a broader geographi- 
cal area. 

470. Moditz, P., and E. Buckner. Container-Grown Pine Seedlings Enable Extended 
Planting Season on Surface Mines in East Tennessee. Paper in Proceedings of the 
Second Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference (Atlanta, GA, Nov. 4-5, 
1982). U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-24, 1983, pp. 141-143. 

This study evaluated the use of containerized loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) and Vir- 
ginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) for extending the planting season and improving 
the survival of these species over that achieved with bare-root seedlings , on sur- 
face mined land in Morgan County, TN. Seedlings were grown in the greenhouse for 
outplanting at 3- to 4-week intervals. Treatments used to test for improved survival 
and growth were (1) control plantings, (2) inoculation of container rooting medium 
with spores and mycelia of Pisolithus tinctorius , and (3) disking to reduce herbace- 
ous competition. Seedling survival rates for all planting dates and treatment combi- 
nations were found to be over 90 pet. Neither disking nor mycorrhizal inoculation 
affected survival of planted species over control treatments. The results of this 
study indicate that containerized pine seedlings can be successfully planted through- 
out the growing season on surface-mined land in east Tennessee. 

471. Monsen, S. B., and A. P. Plummer. Plants and Treatment for Revegetation of 
Disturbed Sites in the Intermountain Area. Paper in The Reclamation of Disturbed 
Arid Lands (symposium sponsored by the Committee on Desert and Arid Zones Research of 
the Southwestern and Rocky Mountain Division of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, Denver, CO, Feb. 23-24, 1977). Univ. NM Press, 1978, pp. 155- 
173. 

The authors provide an excellent discussion of the major factors that must be consid- 
ered in revegetating disturbed arid lands. The authors focus on plant selection and 
establishment techniques. A list of grass and herbaceous species together with their 
areas of adaption is included. Numerous shrub and tree species are also listed, 
together with ratings for establishment by seed, seedling growth rate, competitive 
ability, and seedling drought tolerance. The information contained in this article 
is useful to revegetation planning in portions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

472. Moody, C. W. , and D. T. Kimbrell. Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern 
United States. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). 
U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 7-8. 

The authors discuss the reforestation of surface-mined land in Alabama. Of the 
28,528 acres that were permitted for surface mining in 1979, approximately 85 pet was 
planted to tree species. Species that have been utilized in the Alabama reforesta- 
tion program include paulownia ( Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Stead.), loblolly pine 
( Pinus taeda L.) , longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris Mill.), and Virginia pine ( Pinus 
virginiana Mill.). An improved seedling program has resulted in a 15- to 20-pct in- 
crease in volume production from first-generation seedlings. The authors feel that 
with good forest management on reclaimed mine land, Alabama will be able to meet its 
future demands for forest products. 

473. Moore, R. T., S. L. Ellis, and D. R. Duba. Advantages of Natural Succes- 
sional Processes on Western Reclaimed Lands. Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface 
Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 
1977). Nat. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, pp. 274-282. 

The authors review reclamation guidelines and regulations from Montana, Wyoming, and 
Colorado pertinent to revegetation. They contend that these regulations attempt 
to immediately restore a near-climax plant community on mined land, thus ignoring 



190 

ecological principles. They feel that annual species that invade a reclaimed area or 
are present in topsoil used for reclamation and certain introduced species should be 
considered as an integral part of early successional development of the revegetation 
community. An excellent review of pertinent literature is used to defend this opin- 
ion. While this article specifically addresses reclamation in the above-mentioned 
States and is primarily pertinent to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain 
Coal Mining Regions, the ecological principles evoked are applicable nationwide. 

474. Moore, R. , and T. Mills. An Environmental Guide to Western Surface Mining. 
Part Two: Impacts, Mitigation, and Monitoring (Coal Project, FWS contract 14-16- 
0009-77-008). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-78/04, Dec. 1977, 345 pp. 

The impacts of surface mining for coal, copper, bentonite, oil shale, phosphate, gyp- 
sum, and uranium are addressed by this manual for the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain Coal Mining Regions. The purpose of this manual is to assist U.S. Federal 
regulatory agency biologists and others in making decisions when drafting lease and 
permit stipulations for surface mine development projects. The manual is designed 
primarily for use by biologists; however, it includes introductory information on re- 
gional ecology, minerals, and mining methods, making it useful to managers, industry 
planners, and other decisionmakers of diverse backgrounds. The manual is organized 
in four substantive sections: (1) Regional Ecology and Mining Descriptions, (2) Ef- 
fects of Surface Mining, (3) Recommendations for Mitigation and Enhancement, and 
(4) Recommendations for Monitoring. It is assumed that users of this manual will 
have fairly specific information about the type of surface mining operation planned 
for a given site and more site-specific ecological information available to them than 
is contained in this document. As a consequence the manual provides a starting point 
for determining the impacts and their effects, and for developing mitigation and mon- 
itoring recommendations for a mine in a particular area. It identifies the types of 
information a biologist should have when evaluating surface mining impacts. In addi- 
tion it provides criteria for evaluating mitigation and monitoring procedures. Chap- 
ter 4, "Recommendations for Mitigation and Enhancement," and chapter 5, "Recommenda- 
tions for Monitoring," will be of particular interest to those dealing directly with 
rehabilitation of mine sites and associated monitoring. In chapter 4 recommenda- 
tions concerning site specific mitigation and associated stipulations are considered 
in relation to three possible levels of mitigatory action (high, medium, and low). 
These levels are separated based on (1) the degree to which the adverse impact would 
be eliminated or minimized, (2) the availability and practicability of the technol- 
ogy! (3) the relative cost of achieving each level of protection, and (4) the demon- 
strated or anticipated success of each procedure in protecting, reclaiming, rehabili- 
tating, or enhancing the wildlife resources. The high level of mitigation implies 
application of "best available technologies" with respect to a given activity. Chap- 
ter 5 is divided into several sections. The first section outlines a conceptual ap- 
proach to designing a monitoring program. The sections that follow utilize informa- 
tion presented in the first section to evaluate existing monitoring stipulations and 
provide guidelines for site-specific monitoring. Ratings for keywords used in the 
evaluation process have been applied somewhat differently for assessing this manual, 
since it primarily presents guidelines for land management decisionmaking rather than 
reporting an actual field study. Consequently, the ratings represent the treatment 
of these subject areas in the guidelines presented and the conceptual basis for these 
guidelines. 

475. Morin, M. D. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Sludge-Amended Acid Spoil Medium 
Three Years After Application. Paper in 1982 Sjrmposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 
Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 705-713. 



191 

Anaerobically digested sewage sludge was applied to an abandoned surface-mined area 
in southeast Williamson County, XL (Palzo tract). Three years after application, 
adjusted pH conditions in order to simulate the average pH of the Palzo soils. When 
the O.IN HCl extraction technique was used, higher levels of metals were extracted. 
The higher concentrations may be due to the low pHw's of the Palzo tract and the 
acidic nature of the extraction method. This method also extracts total amounts of 
the metals present rather than available amounts. Using the DTPA chelate method re- 
sulted in lower extractable amounts , which indicate the soluble chelated forms avail- 
able for plant uptake. Beside the other differences, the extractions were a function 
of the metals encountered. 

476. Morin, M. D. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Three-Year-Old Trees Grown on 
Sewage-Amended Surface Mine Spoil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hy- 
drology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, 
Lexibgton, KY, 1982, pp. 297-306. 

This article discusses the concentration of cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, nick- 
el, and zinc in 3-year-old leaf, stem, and root tissue of silver maple (Acer saccha- 
rinum L.), green ash ( Fraxinus Pennsylvania Marsh.), Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana 
Mill.), river birch (Betula nigra L.), and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides 
Bartr. var. deltoides). Comparisons were made between trees that had survived for 3 
years on abandoned surface-mined land treated with varying amounts of sewage sludge 
and nursery grown stock. All trees had been planted as seedlings 3 years prior to 
sampling except for eastern cottonwood, which had invaded the area as a volunteer 
species. Roots and foliage of 3-year-old trees were found to have higher heavy metal 
contents than stems. However, the heavy metal concentration in tissues were lower 
than those found in first-year tissues. This work was conducted on the Palzo tract 
in southern Illinois. 

477. Morin, M. D. Opportunities for Commercial Forests on Surface Mined Lands. 
Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 
31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ. , Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 19-23. 

This article reviews the history and regulations pertaining to planting trees on 
strip-mined areas in Illinois. To properly develop a production environment for 
trees, premine characteristics of the forest need to be investigated. The postmining 
reclamation plan should then reflect the good qualities of the site. These site 
chaxacteristics are briefly reviewed. 

478. Morin, M. D. Vegetation Sampling — A Tool To Measure Woody Plant Survival on 
Mined Land. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation with Trees (co- 
sponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. 
Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, 
pp. 19-36. 

A systematic sampling procedure is outlined that was designed to monitor woody reveg- 
etation efforts on mined lands in an efficient and economical manner, regardless of 
the spatial arrangement of the planted trees or shrubs. The sampling and statistical 
analysis procedures are presented in a clear step-by-step description that facili- 
tates its application. Fixed-radius circular plots systematically arranged through- 
out the sampling site along equally spaced transect lines are utilized. The pro- 
cedure was designed to optimize recordkeeping, maximize data collection, control 
sampling costs, and maximize its utility to a wide array of user groups. The proce- 
dure outlined in this paper is applicable to monitoring the progress of woody vegeta- 
tion establishment on reclaimed minelands and to the planning of these monitoring 
programs. While the procedures were developed in central and southern Illinois, no 



192 

specific coal mining region is further identified for the application of the proce- 
dure. Based on the general nature of the article and the apparent universal applica- 
tion of the sampling and statistical methods described, they are applicable to all of 
the coal mining regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

479. Morse, R. D. Increasing Vegetable Productivity of Strip Mine Spoil Through 
the Use of Organic Soil Amendments. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand 
Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 926-933. 

Selected vegetatble crops were grown on reclaimed strip-mined land in Wise and 
Buchanan Counties in southwest Virginia. They were evaluated for their ability to 
adapt and produce under different soil amendment regimes . The vegetables used in the 
study included 'JetStar' and 'Redpak' tomato ( Lycopersicun esculentum Mill.); 'Cal- 
wonder' and 'Banana' pepper ( Capsicum arruum L.), 'Market Prize' and 'Defender' cab- 
bage ( Brassica oleracea L. var. capltata ) , 'Green Duke' broccoli ( Brasslca oleracea 
L. var. itallca ) , 'Bush Blue Lake 274' greenbeans, Cherokee Wax waxbean and French 
Horticultural shell bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.), 'Brldgeton' lima bean (Phaseolus 
cocclncus L.) 'Poinsett' cucumber ( Cucumis satlvus L.), 'Seneca Prolific' and 'Zuc- 
chini Elite' summer squash ( Curcublta pepo L.), and 'Waltham Butternut' winter squash 
( Curcublta moschata Duch. ex Polr.). Sawdust added as a surface mulch or Incorpo- 
rated enhanced the yield of all vegetables. Yields were further Increased when black 
plastic was used as a surface mulch on warm season vegetables. Yields of snapbeans 
and summer squash, grown after 1 year's cover of yellow sweet clover and fescue sod, 
were more than double those of the controls. The results are primarily applicable to 
reclamation planning In the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

480. Morse, R. , and C. O'Dell. Utilization of Mlnesolls for Production of Vege- 
table Crops. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedlmentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1983, pp. 163-168. 

This study assessed the effects of incorporating green-manure crops on soil proper- 
ties and yield of snapbean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and yellow summer squash (Cucur- 
bita pepo L.) in mountalntop-removal mlnesolls of Appalachla. The green-manure re- 
gimes used were (1) control, (2) sod of yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis 
Lam.) and 'KY-31' tall fescue, ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), (3) sod of sericea 
lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don) and 'KY-31' tall fescue, and 
(4) a rotation of sorghum sudangrass ( Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf ) , followed by 
'Abruzzl' cereal rye ( Secale cereale L.) and crimson clover ( Trifolium incarnatum 
L.), followed by 'York' soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.), followed by 'Abruzzl' 
cereal rye. One or 2 years (2 years being better) growth of green-manure crops re- 
sulted in the improvement of soil bulk density, aggregate stability, moisture con- 
tent, and the subsequent yield of snapbean and squash when compared to unamended con- 
trol plots. The yields obtained in the green-manure plots were equal to or greater 
than national and State averages. In general, nutrient concentrations in the vege- 
table crops fell within the normal ranges found for the same crops in agricultural 
soils. However, boron and calcium leaf concentrations were below normal, while mag- 
nesium, iron, and aluminum levels were above normal. Even under these conditions no 
deficiency or toxicity symptoms occurred. The results of this study show that prop- 
erly reclaimed and amended mlnesolls can produce commercial yields of horticultural 
crops. The production of these crops offers a viable alternative for the use of se- 
lected mlnesolls. 

481. Moss, R. G. Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation on the Wayne National Forest — 
An Interdisciplinary Approach. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 



193 

Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 181-185. 

A case study is presented for which a systematic and interdisciplinary approach to 
planning and implementing abandoned mined land reclamation was utilized. The aban- 
doned mined land was within the Wayne National Forest in southeastern Ohio. Before 
the project was designed, an environmental assessment report was prepared which pro- 
vided the information needed to select reclamation alternatives. The author presents 
the reclamation design concept used in the Yost II Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation 
Project case study. The techniques used include burial of toxic spoil, pond under- 
drain, topsoiling, liming, and rapid reestablishment of herbaceous cover for erosion 
control and wildlife enhancement. 

482. Mueller, B. K. , and P. A. Vance. Soil Moisture Retention Curves for Evaluat- 
ing Plant Moisture Availability of Cover Materials and Coal Refuse From the Staunton 
1 Reclamation Demonstration Project. Argonne Natl. Lab., Argonne IL, ANL/LRP-TM-2 1 , 
Sept. 1981, 26 pp. 

The publication reports the results of a study conducted near Staunton, IL. Moisture 
retention curves were characterized for the three soil materials present at the site 
and used in this reclamation. Based on these curves, gravimetric moisture contents 
of field soil samples were converted to tension values and used as indications of the 
importance of type and depth of soil cover material in situations where soil moisture 
is a growth-limiting parameter. The results and discussion contained in this docu- 
ment are pertinent to revegetation of surface-mined land in the Interior Coal Mining 
Region. 

483. Munshower, F. F., and D. R. Neuman. Elemental Concentrations in Native Plant 
Species Growing on Minesoils and Native Range. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 1, 1980, 
pp. 41-46. 

This study was done to determine if changes in elemental concentration of indigenous 
range plants grown on minesoils in southeastern Montana were the result of disruption 
of the native soils by mining. If changes were found, a second objective was to 
determine if the changes could be mitigated with time and/or spoil treatment during 
the initial reclamation process. Four different sites were chosen for this study: 
(1) an unmined grassland reference area, (2 a 2-year-old topsoiled mine soil, (3) a 
6-year-old poorly topsoiled mine soil, and (4) a 50-year-old nontopsoiled area. 
Sites 2 and 3 were seeded to native plants, while site 4 was revegetated by natural 
seed dispersal. Macronutrient levels (N, P, K, Mg, Ca) were found to be reduced in 
plants grown on the nontopsoiled areas, while plants grown on topsoiled sites had 
elemental concentrations similar to thoses grown on native unmined soil. Micronutri— 
ent levels (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, and Mo) were higher in plants grown on the topsoiled 
sites, while vegetation on the nontopsoiled sites had concentrations similar to those 
found for the unmined site. The authors conclude that the higher micronutrient lev- 
els found in vegetation growing on the recently revegetated sites may be beneficial 
for meeting the nutritional needs of cattle. 

484. Munshower, F. F., D. R. Numan, and S. E. Fisher, Jr. Variation in Physical 
Properties of Overburden Produced by Preparation of the Materials. Paper in 1981 
Sjrmposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 279-282. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the performance of two types of overburden prep- 
aration equipment (grinders) and two overburden particle size fractions on the soil 
chemical and physical properties of three different overburden samples collected from 
southeastern Montana. The two grinders used were a flailer and a plate grinder. 



194 

while the two particle size fractions analyzed were 2 mm and 0.25 mm. No significant 
differences were found in the chemical analyses of soils processed by the flailer and 
the grinder. The 2-mm or 0.25-mm size fractions, whether prepared by the flailer or 
grinder, were not significantly different. Analyses of the two size fractions (2 mm 
and 0.25 mm) resulted in only two parameters with significant differences. The DTPA 
extraction of both copper and zinc yielded significantly greater quantities of these 
elements from the smaller 0.25-mm particle size. When particle size distributions 
were compared (2 mm vs. 0.25 mm), little difference was found between the two treat- 
ments. The authors recommend that regulatory agencies should clarify soil and over- 
burden handling techniques and analytical procedures to insure uniformity and con- 
sistency of reported analyses. 

485. Murray, D. R. Influence of Uranium Mill Tailings on Tree Growth at Elliot 
Lake. ClMBull., Dec. 1978, pp. 79-81. 

This article reports the results of a" 4-year study to determine the ability of coni- 
fers to aid in reclamation of uranium tailings at Elliot Lake, Ontario, Canada. 
Two-year-old, bare-root seedlings of white cedar ( Thuja occidentalis L.), white 
spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss), jack pine ( Pinus banksiana Lamb.), scotch pine 
( Pinus sylvestris L.), and red pine ( Pinus resinosa Ait.) were planted in areas of 
established grasses and on bare tailings. The tailings were categorized as coarse or 
fine. The survival and growth of these conifers were related to species, environ- 
mental conditions, and tailings properties. Percent survival and annual growth, mea- 
sured as plant height, were used as criteria for assessment. Overall survival and 
growth were below those anticipated. The best survival rates were exhibited by pine 
with 68 pet when planted in bare coarse tailings, 45 pet in revegetated coarse tail- 
ings, and 34 pet in vegetated fine tailings. The worst survival rates were exhibited 
by white cedar with 49, 14, and 7 pet in the same materials, respectively. The re- 
sults reported specifically refer to revegetation of uranium mill tailings; however, 
they may also be applicable to surface coal mine reclamation where similar materials 
and/or climate are involved. Based on the species discussed, this article may be 
found most pertinent to the northern portions of the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining 
Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

486. Murray, D. R. Mine Waste Description and Case Histories. Suppl. 10-1 of Pit 
Scope Manual. Can. Cent. Miner. Energy Technol. , Ottawa, Ontario, CANMET Rep. 77-31, 
Dec. 1977, 120 pp. 

This document supplements Chapter 10, Environmental Planning, in a multichapter man- 
ual. Each chapter, as well as the supplements to these chapters, has been published 
separately. The purpose of this supplement is to outline the general principles of 
reclamation by vegetation. It summarizes and reviews numerous case histories in Can- 
ada. Types of mine wastes, their characteristics, and problems commonly encountered 
in attempting revegetation are discussed. This document offers a good reference for 
planning reclamation activities. It was written specifically for application in Can- 
ada; however, much of the material presented is pertinent to reclamation activities 
in the northern portions of the United States as well. 

487. Murray, D. R. , and D. Okuhara. Effect of Surface Treatment of Tailings on 
Effluent Quality. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 3, 1980, pp. 167-177. 

This paper describes the quality and quantity of effluent generated from uranium 
tailings containing sulfide at Elliot Lake, Ontario, Canada, on which various surface 
treatments have been used. Four lysimeter pits were constructed, each including 9 m 
square by 1.5 m deep. Approximately 125 t of uranium tailings were added to each 
pit. The surface treatments used follow: pit 1, covered with 15 cm of gravel; pit 
2, covered with 15 cm of sawdust; pit 3, no treatment; and pit 4, treated with lime- 
stone and, fertilizer and was seeded to redtop (Agrostis alba L.) and 'creeping' red 



195 

fescue ( Fes tuca rubra L. ) • Pit 4 received monthly fertilization during the first 
growing season and the four subsequent years of this study. Chemical analyses were 
done on the tailings (five samples per pit) and the effluent (every 2 weeks from 
the first spring flow until flow stopped the following fall or winter). During the 
5-year period of this study, the surface treatments were compared with bare tailings 
where no surface additions were made. The results indicate that the surface treat- 
ments did not alter the effluent quality to an acceptable level. The surface treat- 
ments did not affect the leaching of radixim 226, ammonium, or nitrate. The acidity 
of the tailings also changed over the course of the study, from an initial pH of 9.5 
to a pH of 2 to 3. As the acidity rose, the concentration of iron, sulfate, copper, 
lead, and aluminuim in the effluent increased. However, the rate and extent of these 
chemical changes varied with surface treatment. The authors conclude that the sur- 
face treatments used in this study did not prevent the deterioration of effluent wa- 
ter passing through the nonsaturated portion of uranium mill tailings. 

488. Murray, E. Introducing. . .Reclamation. Western. Wildlands , v. 7, No. 3, 
1981, pp. 8-11. 

This article contains general information on reclaimining Montana surface-mined lands 
to rangeland. Information is presented on planning and implementing a reclamation 
program and on some of the successfully used plant species for reestablishing range- 
land and wildlife habitat. 

489. Napieralski, D. Tree Planting Methods on Surface Mined Lands. Paper in 
Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal 
Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, 
June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 229-230. 

This article presents a succinct review of hand planting operations for tree seed- 
lings. Topics covered include tree pickup, root pruning, planting, weed control, and 
inspection. This article provides a practical approach to and includes helpful tips 
for achieving success with hand tree planting operations. The article is applicable 
to all the coal mining regions considered in this evaluation process. 

490. National Research Council. Disposal of Excess Spoil From Coal Mining and the 
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: A Study of Regulatory Require- 
ments, Engineering Practices, and Environmental Protection Objections. Nat. Acad. 
Press, Washington, DC, 1981, 207 pp. 

Although the report deals extensively with the disposal of excess spoil to contrtol 
erosion and the regulatory impacts, Section 8.4, Revegetation of Excess Spoil is 
a general discussion of the planning and potential impacts of revegetation of coal 
spoils. Other sections mention revegetation as appropriate, but Section 8.3 dis- 
cusses the benefits, practices, and crteria for successful revegetation for the in- 
dustry as a whole. 

491. National Academy of Sciences. Environments, Industry, and People: Strip- 
Mining for Coal in Alaska. NAS News Rep., v. 31, No. 1, Jan. 1981, pp. 14-19. 

This is a general article dealing with the unique feature of permafrost in much of 
Alaska's coal-bearing area, and the probable modifications necessary to Public Law 
95-87 to accommodate reclamation in these areas. Where permafrost exists, the area 
cannot be revegetated because the mean annual temperature is below 0° C. Additional- 
ly, mining in these areas will disturb present landforms such that thawing will occur 
and subsidence may result. The article concludes that permafrost terrain requires 
mining and reclamation techniques somewhat different from those discussed in the act. 

492. National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council. Surface Coal Min- 
ing in Alaska: An Investigation of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 



196 

of 1977 in Relation to Alaskan Conditions. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, DC, 1980, 
379 pp. 

This is an extremely comprehensive publication on coal mining in Alaska as related to 
Public Law 95-87. Although general in their treatment of any particular subject, the 
committees responsible for this report cover every aspect of coal mining from con- 
cerns over permafrost and earthquakes, which are not covered in Public Law 95-87, to 
social impacts of industrial development. Although the report does nor deal in de- 
tail with coal mine land revegetation, it was included in this bibliography because 
of the vast amount of information pertaining to all areas of concern for mining de- 
velopment in Alaska. 

493. National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council. Surface Mining: 
Soil, Coal, and Society. Nat, Acad. Press, Washington, DC, 1981, 246 pp. 

This report was prepared by the Committee on Soil as a Resource in Relation to Sur- 
face Mining for Coal, under the National Research Council. It describes major as- 
pects of the impact of mining on soils and depicts soil as a mineral resource. The 
study was multidisciplinary in nature, drawing upon expertise in the fields of min- 
ing, soils, civil engineering, geology, and resource management. A methodology was 
developed to evaluate soil and land as an economic and environmental resource. As 
stated, an appropriate goal for reclamation is to ensure that society does not lose 
important land-use opportunities that were available before soil disturbance, or that 
could be generated in the reclamation process. The development of productive capac- 
ity in soils is governed by climate, parent material, topography, and biota. These 
factors produce important variations among major coal producing regions and local 
variations within each region. Thus reclamation goals and techniques must be adapted 
to these variations and public and private concerns and scientific and technical in- 
formation must be considered when determining the most appropriate reclamation prac- 
tice for a given site. Although the report generalizes a great deal, it provides 
guidance and direction for meeting the challenges of effective reclamation and in- 
cludes an excellent bibliography of related literature. 

494. Naughton, G. G. Spoil Bank Energy Forest Systems. Final Report to the 
Ozarks Regional Commission. KS Energy Off., Topeka, KS, and Dep. of Forestry, KS 
State Univ., Manhatten, KS, Apr. 1981, 66 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study conducted on lands in Crawford and 
Cherokee Counties, KS, that had been strip-mined for bituminous coal between 1877 and 
1969. A classification system was designed and applied to categorize current land 
use and vegetation types in the area. The areas were analyzed for their potential 
fuel wood and saw timber production. The author concludes that the total costs of 
reclamation of these lands can never be recovered solely on the basis of their subse- 
quent economic production and must, therefore, depend, in part on the amenity values 
associated with reclamation. This publication is an excellent reference for determ- 
ining reclamation options on these types of lands in the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

495. Nawrot, J. R. Stabilization of Slurry Impoundments Without Soil Cover: Fac- 
tors Affecting Vegetation Establishment. Paper in 1981 Symposium of Surface Mining, 
Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 469-476. 

This article evaluates reedgrass ( Phragmites australis Trin) establishment on 12 
slurry impoundments and 4 natural areas in southern Illinois. Soil cover was not 
used. A brief review is also given on the history, distribution, ecological adapta- 
tions, and practical applications of reedgrass. A tolerance and adaptation to the 
physical and chemical conditions associated with inactive slurry impoundments was 



197 

Identified for reedgrass through investigations on the slurry physical and chemical 
properties, plant tissue analysis, plant density, and biomass production. The most 
significant physiological factor that has contributed to reedgrass colonizing slurry 
sites is the dependence of the plant on the subsurface zone for its nutrient and 
moisture requirements, while avoiding the more toxic surface. 

496. Nawrot, J. R. , M. L. Fuson, and D. M. Downing. Reedgrass and Slurry Pond 
Reclamation. Min. Cong. J., v. 67, No. 9, 1981, pp. 23-28. 

This study was conducted at the Monterery Ctoal Co. No. 1 Mine in Macoupin County, XL, 
to determine if reedgrass ( Phragmites australis Trin) could grow directly on slurry 
refuse and prevent embankment erosion. The objectives of the study were to (1) dem- 
onstrate the practicality of revegetating refuse and slurry areas without the use of 
topsoil, (2) provide protection for slurry dikes against wave erosion, and (3) en- 
hance the wildlife habitat potential of the slurry pond. Reedgrass not only sta- 
bilized the coal slurry area without topsoil replacement, but also provided erosion 
control and wildlife enhancement. Reedgrass has the potential for stabilizing and 
covering both inactive and abandoned coal slurry areas. 

497. Nawrot, J. R. , W. D. Klimstra, and K. Sather. Reclamation and Revegetation 
Potential of Illinois Historic Longwall Mining Refuse. Paper in 1982 Symposium on 
Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 
1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 129-138. 

This paper provides a brief summary of the chemical characteristics of abandoned 
burned and unburned coarse coal refuse (gob) and slurry located in Illinois. Refuse 
samples were analyzed for pH, conductivity, titratable acidity, potential acidity, 
soluble iron, manganese, aluminvmi, and sulfate. These samples showed significant 
differences in the major phytotoxic characteristics related to the seam mined, re- 
gion, and extent of combustion. The chemical, physical, and vegetation data were 
recently updated for seam 2, located in the historic longwall mining district of 
northern Illinois. In addition to the analyses listed above, macronutrient and mi- 
cronutrient analyses were conducted. Unburned refuse from seam 2 is characterized by 
a high clay-shale ratio and low potential acidity (31 meq H'''/100 g) when compared to 
the acid potential of seams 6 or 7 (>120 meq hVIOO g). These sites are also charac- 
terized by low nutrient availability, harsh physical conditions, and chronic acidity, 
which prevent natural revegetation. A possible reclamation alternative would be to 
lime and plant these areas. By doing this the rate of natural succession can be ac- 
celerated on these aged and weathered refuse areas. 

498. Nawrot, J. R. , and C. A. Kolar. Problem Spoilbanks: Enhancing Succession 
Through Reforestation. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees 
(Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, 
pp. 151-156. 

This article discusses natural revegetation and changes in minesoll properties on 
Illinois coal spoilbanks. In the late 1960's and early 1970's the Cooperative Wild- 
life Research Laboratory at Southern Illinois University evaluated over 11,000 acres 
of spoilbanks with acid conditions (pH <5) and/or a vegetative cover less than 25 
pet. Many of these areas were also evaluated approximately 10 years later. While 
the rate of natural succession varied widely, some had increased plant cover from 
less than 25 pet to greater than 75 pet. Using the latest data, a spoilbank classi- 
fication system was developed based on the current successional rate and trend, pri- 
mary inhibiting factors (such as pH) , speculated time required for natural recovery, 
and level of reclamation effort for enhancement of current successional trends. The 
use of tree plantings to enhance reclamation is discussed in the context of the study 
findings. 



198 

499. Nawrot, J. R. , and S. C. Taich. Slurry Pond Forestation: Potential and 
Problems. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation with Trees (spon- 
sored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madisonville Comm. Coll., 
Terra Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 180- 
194. 

The potential for habitat development and diversification on slurry impoundments 
through forestation is discussed. A study was conducted examining tree growth on a 
number of inactive surry impoundments in Illinois and Indiana. This investigation 
revealed that plantings during 1965-75 were most successful in moist soil zones near 
impoundment decant areas. In these areas, survival was greatest for hydrophytic spe- 
cies such as baldcypress ( Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.) and river birch ( Betula 
nigra L.). Growth rates for these species in these areas were comparable to those of 
individuals growing in natural soil. More limited and localized success was obtained 
with plantings of red ( Pinus resinosa Ait.) and Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana 
Mill.) discharge areas. Horizontal and vertical zonation of hydrogeochemical slurry 
characteristics relating to the separation and distribution of slurry constituents 
were identified. Coarse-textured pyritic materials are deposited near the discharge 
point, while fine silt and clay materials migrate farther toward the decant portion 
of the pond. Material characteristics pertinent to forestation efforts are discussed 
in conjunction with techniques for ameliorating problems related to acid-base balance 
and surface stability, and taking advantage of slurry zones which have inherently 
favorable physicochemical qualities for tree growth. The results of this study would 
be most pertinent to the reclamation of these types of sites within the Interior Coal 
Mining Region. They may be applicable in portions of the Eastern and Gulf Coast Coal 
Mining Regions as well. 

500. Nawrot, J. R. , A. Woolf, and W. D. Klimster. A Guide for Enhancement of Fish 
and Wildlife on Abandoned Mine Lands in the Eastern United States. U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Ser., FWS/OBS 80/67, 1982, 101 pp. 

This guide promotes fish and wildlife enhancement on abandoned mined lands in the 
Eastern, Interior and Gulf Coast Coal Regions. Subjects covered include characteris- 
tics of abandoned mined lands, the basis for fish and wildlife enhancement, and plan- 
ning for fish and wildlife habitat. Case histories include describing problem sites, 
what needs to be considered when reclaiming them, and cost considerations. Informa- 
tion on plant species established is also given. 

501. Nelson, R. W. , J. F. Orsborn, and W. J. Logan. Planning and Management of 
Mine-Cut Lakes at Surface Coal Mines. U.S. Office of Surface Min., OSM/TR-82/1, May, 
1982, 248 pp. 

This manual was designed as a guide for the coal industry and regulatory agencies in 
the planning, design, and management of surface coal mine lakes created by mining 
cuts when left as permanent water impoundments. The guidelines presented in the man- 
ual are not legally binding. They are meant to be used by land reclamation planners 
and managers to help determine the feasibility and utility of planned new lakes. The 
manual covers many aspects of the planning and construction of these lakes. Two sec- 
tions of the document deal with revegetation. For the most part this information is 
fairly general. However, it does point out several important considerations for rec- 
lamation planning. A good review of some of the herbaceous and woody species that 
have been used in surface mine reclamation is provided. Special techniques for es- 
tablishing aquatic and shoreline plant species are discussed. Based on the material 
and examples described in the manual, it appears to be most applicable to the Inte- 
rior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

502. Nesbitt, P. D. , E. L. Richie, and J. L. McGraner. Abandoned Mine Land Recla- 
mation in Eastern Kentucky-Case Studies. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, 



199 

Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 211-225. 

The authors discuss the abandoned mine land projects that their company has been in- 
volved with in eastern Kentucky. The projects include both emergency reclamation 
projects and investigative studies. The projects cover several postmining problems 
common to abandoned mine land prior to current regulations. They include coal refuse 
fires, hazardous impoundments and sediment structures, and landslides. For each 
project presented a general site description is given along with the engineering de- 
sign and site reclamation techniques utilized. 

503. Nicholas, P. J., and W. J. McGinnes. An Evaluation of 17 Grasses and 2 Leg- 
umes for Revegetation of Soil and Spoil on a Coal Strip Mine. J. Range Manage., v. 
35, No. 3, May 1982, pp. 288-293. 

This paper reports the results of a greenhouse study that evaluated the potential of 
17 grass species and 2 legume species for revegetation of surface-coal-mined areas. 
Growth medium treatments included 53 cm of spoil material without topsoil and 25 cm 
of topsoil placed over 28 cm of minespoil. Grasses grown in topsoil exhibited herb- 
age yields 7 times greater and root yields 6 times greater than grasses grown in 
spoil without topsoil. Native and introduced grass species exhibited similar average 
herbage yields. Introduced species averaged greater root production, particularly in 
spoil material. Two legumes, alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) and "cicer" milkvetch 
( Astragalus cicer L.), produced much higher yields and higher crude protein than any 
of the grasses studied, regardless of the growth medium treatment. The study was 
conducted using spoil and soil material collected from a minesite near Steamboat 
Springs, CO. The results of this study are primarily relevant to that specific area. 
With careful consideration they might be applied to species selection for revegeta- 
tion efforts over a slightly broader geographical area. 

504. Nielsen, G. A., and E. V. Miller. Crop Yields on Native Soils and Strip Mine 
Soils: A Comparison. J. Soil Water Conserv., v. 35, No. 1, 1980, pp. 44-46. 

This article summarizes parts of a national survey on mineland productivity which 
sought comparisons of crop yields before and after mining operations. The objectives 
of the survey were to (1) identify the major sources of information about mined land 
productivity in the United States, (2) find comparable yield figures for corn 
( Zea mays L.) production on native soils (reference area) and stripmine soils, and 
(3) suggest a means of obtaining soil performance data for crop production. The sur- 
vey was sent to an organization that actively investigated strip mine spoil reclama- 
tion in order to obtain information on yields and associated yield parameters (i.e., 
fertilization, weed control, crop varieties used, soil conditions, and climate). The 
survey indicated that corn yields on mine soils were 4 to 90 pet less than on adja- 
cent native soils. This reduction in yield was dependent upon topsoil application, 
age, and the special treatments used. The authors concluded that yield reductions 
from strip mining can be large or small depending upon the reclamation procedures and 
spoil qualities. The data illustrated the importance df soil replacement, supple- 
mental additions of lime and manure, and the initial planting of legume and grass 
forage species. 

505. Nieves, L. A., and M. H. Marti. Economic Feasibility Analysis of Water- 
Harvesting Techniques for Mined-Land Reclamation (U.S. DOE contract DE-AC06-76RLO 
1830). Pacific NW Lab., Richland, WA, PNL-3737, July 1981, 47 pp. 

This publication provides a preliminary economic feasibility study evaluating the net 
private benefits of water harvesting reclamation techniques as compared to con- 
ventional reclamation systems. Peabody Coal Co.'s Kayenta Mine on the Black Mesa 
in Arizona was used in the case analysis. The present value of direct net benefits 



200 

(income minus production and reclamation costs) is calculated for grazing (represent- 
ing conventional reclamation) and for cropping (representing water harvesting tech- 
niques). Three of the slope treatments tested in the water harvesting study were 
found to have lower estimated total costs than conventional reclamation. The water 
harvesting method also has advantages based on the higher estimated value of agricul- 
tural production capacity. The water harvesting system appears to be potentially 
viable on sites receiving only 25 to 30 pet of the precipitation normally required 
for crop production. The results and discussion contained in this report are perti- 
nent to reclamation planning in the arid portions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern 
Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

506. Norem, M. A., A. D. Day, and K. L. Ludeke. An Evaluation of Shrub and Tree 
Species Used for Revegetating Copper Mine Wastes in the SW United States. J. Arid 
Environ., v. 5, No. 4, 1982, pp. 299-304. 

The purpose of this study was to evaluate tree and shrub species survival, growth, 
and reproductive potential on copper tailings and overburden material and on northern 
and eastern slope aspects at the Cyprus Pima Mine near Tucson, AZ. Ten tree species 
and seven shrub species were evaluated. The planting rates for the trees and shrubs 
were 20 tree seedlings per 900 m^ and 15 shrub species per 900 m^. Two of the 7 
shrub species had 100 pet mortality and 3 of the 10 tree species had 100 pet mortal- 
ity. Hopseedbush ( Dodanea viscosa (L) Jaeq.) was the only shrub which survived on 
the north aspect. For the trees, paloverde ( Cereidium mierophyllum (Torr.) Rose & 
Johnst.) survived best on the east slope and tree tobacco ( Nicotiana glauca Grab.) 
survived only on the north slope. The remaining tree species were not affected by 
aspect. The authors conclude that in the arid areas of the Southwestern United 
States plant survival depends on the chemical composition of the mine waste material, 
slope exposure, and the suitability of a species to an arid environment. 

507. Oaks, W. R. Plant Materials. Paper in Vegetative Rehabilitation and Equip- 
ment Workshop, 36th Annual Report (Denver, CO, Feb. 4-5, 1982). U.S. For. Serv. , 
Equip. Dev. Cen. , Missoula, MI, 1982, pp. 23-24. 

The author lists the plant materials that have been released for general use by the 
Soil Conservation Service in 1981. Sources of information on these released plant 
materials are also provided. 

508. Oaks, W. R. Seed Coating "Hard To Drill" Seeds. Paper in Vegetative Reha- 
bilitation and Equipment Workshop, 36th Annual Report (Denver, CO, Feb. 4-5, 1982). 
U.S. For. Serv. Equip. Dev. Cen., Missoula, MT, 1982, pp. 21-22. 

This article contains information on preliminary work done on the feasibility of 
coating trashy seeds. Since fluffy or trashy seeds are difficult to plant accurate- 
ly, seed coating offers several advantages: (1) economic, (2) more accurate seed 
placement, (3) better seed mixing, (4) use of conventional equipment, (5) inclusion 
of nutrients, fungicides, or herbicides in the coatings, and (6) reduced seeding 
rates. A list of species is given where the seeds have been successfully treated. 
Further studies on seed coating are currently being conducted. 

509. Obiechina, C. 0., and D. D. Badger. Economic and Environmental Impacts of 
Coal Mining and Reclamation in Eastern Oklahoma. Agric. Exp. Sta. , Div. of Agric, 
OK State Univ., Bull. B-763, Aug. 1982, 34 pp. 

The study reported in this publication was designed to estimate agricultural produc- 
tivity before and after strip mining and reclamation. Pasture and livestock budgets 
for reclaimed land were developed and compared to net cash returns of existing pre- 
mining budgets. Static linear programming (2P) models were formulated based on the 
developed and existing budgets to evaluate the profitability of cattle ranching be- 
fore and after strip mining and reclamation. The economic, social, and environmental 



201 

impacts of strip mining on the economy of eastern Oklahoma under alternative reclama- 
tion strategies are estimated. The results of the study indicate that increased net 
cash income could be realized by the cattle rancher. However, this income is contin- 
gent on the success of the reclamation efforts and the solvency of the coal company 
mining the land. Alternative mineral rights transfer strategies aimed at reducing 
agricultural productivity (monetary) losses are discussed. Reclamation concurrent 
with mining appeared to provide the most positive impacts on the region. 

510. Ohlsson, K. E., A. E. Robb, Jr., A. E. Guindon, Jr., D. E. Samuel, and R. L. 
Smith. Best Current Practices for Fish and Wildlife on Surface Mined Land in the 
Northern Appalachian Coal Region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-81/45, 1982, 
305 pp. 

This handbook was designed to provide ideas for simple, cost-effective methods of im- 
proving fish and wildlife resources on reclaimed surface coal mines in the northern 
Appalachian coal regions. It covers wildlife enhancement methods for both aquatic 
and terrestrial environments. It provides an extensive review of methods of revege- 
tating land for wildlife purposes. Subjects covered include species selection, meth- 
ods of soil modification to create vegetated areas suitable for wildlife, soil amend- 
ments necessary to establish vegetation, and methods of obtaining and planting seed, 
cuttings, and transplants for wildlife purposes. The discussion includes methods of 
planting areas with trees, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation to create "edge" habitat 
necessary for wildlife diversity. Selecting and planting aquatic vegetation is also 
reviewed. This is an excellent document for anyone interested in enhancing fish and 
wildlife in the northern Appalachian coal region. 

511. Olsen, S. H. , and S. J. Henning. Nitrogen Fertilization of Corn on a Recon- 
structed Soil at a Surface Coal Mine. Paper in 1980 Symposium on Surface Mining, 
Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 1-5, 1980). Univ. KY, 
Lexington, KY, 1980, pp. 23-25. 

This article presents data from a 2-year study on the effects of nitrogen ferti- 
lizer application and deep tillage treatments on corn (Zea mays L.) yields in Mahaska 
County, lA. The 'Lester Pfister 75' hybrid was planted at a rate of 47,000 seeds per 
hectare. Maximum yields were obtained with nitrogen application rates of 250 to 300 
kg/ha. This rate is approximately 25 pet higher than the rate recommended for undis- 
turbed land in the area but is justified due to the lower fertility status and poor 
soil physical conditions of mined land. However, when deep tillage treatments are 
used, less nitrogen fertilizer may be needed to obtain maximum corn yields. Informa- 
tion on herbicide and pesticide application rates and the nutrient status (N, P and 
K) of corn leaves is also presented. 

512. Olson, R. A. Ecology of Wetland Vegetation on Selected Strip Mine Ponds and 
Stockdams in the Northern Great Plains. Ph. D. Thesis, ND State Univ., June 1979, 
493 pp. 

This thesis reports the results of an extensive examination of the wetland plant com- 
munities of strip mine ponds and stockdams in five geographical locations in the 
Northern Great Plains Region. Density, frequency, relative frequency, relative den- 
sity, relative canopy coverage, and an importance value were calculated for plant 
species encountered in randomly located 0.25-m^ quadrats to characterize each major 
wetland community. Stockdams were found to be floristically richer than strip mine 
ponds. Plant communities were distributed in narrow concentric bands around strip 
mine ponds compared with wider, complex mosaic patterns of vegetation associated 
with stockdams. The magnitude of summer drawdown and basin slope were found to be 
major factors determining wetland community attributes. The author recommends con- 
touring existing rangeland strip mine ponds to reclaim wetland community ecosystems. 
Extensive species composition, production, and plant cover data are presented. The 



202 

publication is an excellent reference for revegetation planning in the Northern Great 
Plains Coal Mining Region and with prudent consideration could find application over 
a broader geographical region. 

513. Olson, R. A. Wetland Vegetation, Environmental Factors, and Their Interac- 
tion in Strip Mine Ponds, Stockdams , and Natural Wetlands. U.S. For. Ser., GTR-RM- 
85, July 1981, 19 pp. 

This publication offers a concise review of the water regime, chemical features, tem- 
perature factors, light penetration, substrate properties, and physical character- 
istics for strip mine ponds and stockdams in the Northern Great Plains Region. The 
author discusses how these parameters interact to determine wetland plant community 
composition and the consequent wildlife habitat quality for consumptive and noncon- 
sumptive resource utilization. This publication is a good general reference for re- 
vegetation planning in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region and with prudent 
consideration could find application over a broader geographical region. 

514. Opeka, T., and R. Morse. Use of Green-Manure Amendments and Tillage To Im- 
prove Minesoil Productivity (U.S. EPA-IAG contract DG-E762 and U.S. SEA-CR contract 
684-15-26, VA Poly. Inst, and State Univ.). EPA-600/7-29-257, Dec. 1979, 85 pp. 

This report relates the results of a 2-year study conducted in Buchanan and Wise 
Counties, VA. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of green manure 
crops and tillage treatments on vegetable crop growth and yield. Normal and deep 
tillage treatments produced the best yields on calcareous soils, whereas minimum and 
normal tillage treatments produced the best results on acid soils. The differences 
appeared to be moisture related. The normal and deep tillage treatments on calcare- 
ous soils tended to have higher moisture levels and the highest infiltration rates. 
On the acid minesoils, minimum tillage plots tended to have higher moisture content 
throughout their profiles than did the other treatments. Increased depth of tillage 
and incorporation of lime plus green manure crops tended to improve the mine soil 
productivity by improving some of the physical and chemical characteristics. This 
report is of particular importance to reclamation planning in the Appalachian area. 
It indicates that, with favorable economic and climatic conditions, the production of 
certain horticultural and agronomic crops is a potential alternative, 

515. Orr, H. K, Reestablishment of Wooded Waterways and Associated Upland Shrub 
Communities in Surface Coal Mining Areas of the Northwestern Great Plains. Paper in 
Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and Expo IV, 
Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 1977, 
pp. 235-244. 

This study examined suitable methods and species for reestablishment of woody vegeta- 
tion along waterways and associated upland sites. Variable combinations of cultural 
treatments and plant species can be used for planting in waterways depending on 
slope, aspect, and spoil characteristics. Low shrubs such as big sagebrush ( Arte- 
misia tridentata Nutt.), rubber rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt.), 
fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.), and winterfat (Eurotia lanata 
(Pursh) Moq.) can be established on south-facing slopes and adjacent uplands. On 
these sites erosion can be minimized and moisture conserved by contour furrowing. 
On north-facing slopes, taller species such as green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica 
Marsh.), cottonwood ( Populus sargentii Dode) , Russian olive ( Elaeagnus angustifolia 
L.), Siberian peashrub ( Caragana arborescens Lam.), and silver buffaloberry ( Shepher- 
dia argentea (Pursh) Nutt.) are adaptable. On these aspects and selected locations 
on other aspects. Rocky Mountain juniper (Junipercus scopulorum Sarg.) and ponderosa 
pine ( Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex P. & C. Laws.) can also be established. Establish- 
ment and survival of these latter species may be enhanced if supplemental water and 
moisture conservation measures such as contour furrowing and/or mulching are applied. 



203 

No given species was consistently successful in terms of initial establishment. Con- 
tainer grown stock was reported superior for the conifer species. Initial survival 
rates were higher for bare-root stock for the deciduous species. This paper is a 
good reference for stock for the deciduous species. This paper is a good reference 
for planning revegetation in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region and may 
find application in the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Region as well. 

516. Packer, P. E., C. E. Jensen, E. L. Noble, and J. A. Marshall. Estimating 
Revegetation Potentials of Land Surface Mined for Coal in the West. Paper in Ecology 
and Coal Resource Development, Volume 1 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the 
Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 396- 
411. 

The primary objectives of this investigation were to develop capabilities for pre- 
dicting the degree of revegetation success to be expected under a wide variety of 
climatic conditions, soil and spoil properties, and revegetation treatments, uti- 
lizing site-specific revegetation data and information from many of the major coal 
surface mines in North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and 
Arizona. It was assumed that, unless some other revegetation objective is defined, 
the primary goal of revegetation on surface-mined coal in the interior West is to 
establish a productive and protective cover of durable plants consisting predomi- 
nantly of needed species adapted to and characteristic of these areas or other simi- 
lar areas before mining. It was further assumed that differences in the degree 
of success of revegetation efforts to date on surface-mined coal lands of the West 
should be related to variations in natural climatic components, changes in site- 
specific physical and biological characteristics, and differences in the revegetation 
methods. Multiple regression models were developed for estimating forage production 
and plant cover densities as functions of climatic environment components, growth 
medium characteristics, and revegetation treatment alternatives. The results of the 
study indicate that the amount of forage produced and the density of plant cover de- 
veloped are significantly affected by at least two major climatic factors that are 
not readily susceptible to alteration: annual precipitation and length of growing 
season. Three properties of spoil materials were found to be significantly related 
to production and cover. These were potassium and sodium content and pH. Seven re- 
vegetation treatments including tilling, seeding methods, topsoiling, fertilizing, 
supplemental irrigation, mulching, and time of seeding were also found to be related 
to forage production and ground cover. Finally, the age of the vegetation also sig- 
nificantly affected forage cover and production. All of these factors together ac- 
counted for about one-half to three-forths of the variations experienced in forage 
production and plant cover density. The relationships and models developed in the 
investigation reported are relevant to reclamation planning in major portions of the 
Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. Ratings for keywords 
used in the evaluation process have been applied somewhat differently for this re- 
port. Since this report deals primarily with statistical computer models, the rat- 
ings represent the apparent treatment of these subject areas in the process of devel- 
oping the model and the conceptual basis for the model. 

517. Packer, P. E, C. E. Jensen, E. L. Nable, and J. A. Marshall. Models To Esti- 
mate Revegetation Potentials of Land Surface Mined for Coal in the West. U.S. For. 
Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-123, Aug. 1982, 25 pp. 

The objectives of this research were to develop methods to estimate the degree of re- 
vegetation success obtainable under a wide variety of climatic conditions , soil and 
spoil properties, and revegetation treatments, using site-specific data and infor- 
mation from most of the surface coal mines rehabilitated through 1976 in the inte- 
rior West. A strong conceptual framework was developed in the form of FORTRAN IV 
regression models to estimate forage production and vegetative cover for native and 



204 

introduced species. Maps were also developed depicting precipitation and growing 
season; spoil material properties were K, Na, and pH. Seven revegetation treatments 
and the age of vegetation completed the list of major controlling factors accounting 
for 50 to 75 pet of the total variance in forage production and plant cover density. 
This is a good article to use as a guide to successful revegetation techniques. 

518. Parkinson, D. Microbes, Mycorrhizae and Mine Spoil. Paper in Ecology and 
Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Eco- 
system, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 634-642. 

This paper provides a succinct literature review of the state of the art in the sub- 
jects of soil microbiology and mycorrhizae as they pertain to mineland reclamation. 
The paper provides good background reading that would be especially useful to the in- 
dividual with little or no experience in the subject. The subject matter covered has 
potential application nationwide. 

519. Parr, D. E. Reforestation as a Post Mining Land Use in the Midwest. Paper 
in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lex- 
ington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 249-255. 

A synopsis is presented of the reforestation program being developed by AMAX Coal Co. 
for its Illinois and Indiana surface mines. The amount of acreage that AMAX plants 
to forest is determined by the amount of premining forest disturbed by mining; 
an equivalent amount of forest is replaced. The program emphasizes obtaining good- 
quality stock, proper care and handling of stock, proper planting techniques, and an 
effective weed control program. The author feels that the additional cost of weed 
control is justified because of Improved seedling survival and enhanced growth. How- 
ever, owing to compaction, grading to approximate original contour does not promote 
the long-term growth and survival of tree and shrub species . The author believes 
that areas designated as forest for a postmlning land use can be effectively re- 
claimed with minimal grading without having a negative impact on surrounding land 
uses. Minimal grading will reduce compaction, which will in turn promote the devel- 
opment of a more productive forest resource. 

520. Parr, D. E. Reforestation of Surface Mined Lands of AMAX Coal Co. Paper in 
1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 
1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 

A description is given of AMAX Coal Co.'s reforestation program in Illinois and 
Indiana. The discussion includes selection of herbaceous species for ground cover, 
planting, and weed control to allow survival and growth of trees and shrubs, and 
long-term management. After describing preplanting considerations and comparing 
mechanical and hand planting methods, the costs, methods, and advantages of chemical 
weed control are described. Data on tree species survival and cost per seedling us- 
ing different weed control application methods are given. Long-term management In- 
volves weed control and interplanting of tree species different than those already 
established. This is an excellent summary of one coal company's program In foresta- 
tion of mined lands. 

521. Parton, W. J., J. E. Ellis, and D. M. Swift. The Impacts of Strip Mine Rec- 
lamation Practices: A Simulation Study. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Develop- 
ment, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, 
Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 584-591. 

The material conveyed in this paper is reviewed elsewhere in this bibliography; see 
reference 212. The rating system has been applied somewhat differently for this re- 
port. Since it deals with a computer model and not actual field studies, the ratings 
represent the apparent treatment of these subject areas by the simulation model and 
the conceptual basis for the model. The model could provide an excellent starting 



205 

point for reclamation studies and planning in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

522. Pederson, T. A., A. S. Rogowski, and R. Pennock, Jr. Comparison of Some 
Properties of Minesoils and Contiguous Natural Soils (U.S. EPA contract EPA-IAGD5- 
E763). U.S. EPA, EPA-600/7-8-162, Aug. 1978, 141 pp. 

This document reports the results of investigations to evaluate soil changes due 
to surface coal mining and reclamation operations in Clearfield County, PA. Four 
minesoil pits located within the disturbed area and four natural soil pits located in 
adjacent undisturbed areas were sampled and described. Minesoils exhibited a high 
degree of coarseness and high rock fragment content. Roots were generally found to 
concentrate along soil-coarse fragment interfaces. Few roots penetrated the massive 
minesoil material in the C horizons . Significantly more extractable aluminum was 
found in the natural soils than in minesoils. The clay minerals present in the mine- 
soils were less weathered than those in natural soils. Bulk densities of surface 
minesoils averaged 1.70 g/cm^ compared with 1.26 g/cm-^ for adjacent soils. This re- 
port is an excellent reference applicable to mineland reclamation planning and re- 
search in the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

523. Pederson, T. A., A. S. Rogowski, and R. Pennock, Jr. Comparison of Morpho- 
logical and Chemical Characteristics of Some Soils and Minesoils. Reclam. Rev., 
v. 1, No. 3/4, 1978, pp. 143-156. 

This publication is a summary of the completed EPA-600/7-8-162 contract report by the 
same authors, reference 522. This study was conducted to determine the effects of 
surface mining and reclamation on minesoil properties in Clearfield County, PA. Four 
minesoil pits within a disturbed area and four natural soil pits located in an adja- 
cent undisturbed area were sampled, described and compared. Pedogenetic development 
in minesoils was minimal, and their most prominent feature was a high degree of 
coarseness and rock fragment content. Plant roots tended to concentrate along the 
coarse fragment interfaces. The concentration of chemical constituents in minesoils 
was similar to that found in natural soils. Significantly higher extractable alumi- 
num content was found in the natural soils owing to prolonged weathering of the mate- 
rial. The C:N ratios of minesoils indicate that nitrogen is a limiting factor for 
microbial activity. The clay mineralogy of the native and mine soils indicates that 
the minesoils were derived from the same material as the native soil. The authors 
concluded that the high coarse fragment content and low cation exchange capacity of 
the minesoils suggest that agronomic use of these soils is questionable without fer- 
tilization and special cultivation equipment. 

524. Pederson, T. A., A. S. Rogowski, and R. Pennock. Physical Characteristics of 
Some Minesoils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 44, No. 2, 1980, pp. 321-328. 

The physical properties of spoils resulting from coal surface mining and reclamation 
were studied at a mine in Clearfield County, PA, The objectives of the study were to 
determine minesoil characteristics such as specific surface area, bulk density, mois- 
ture, water retention, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rates, and evapotrans- 
piration at 10 sites located within the 4-ha experimental area. The results show 
that the surface mining and reclamation operations at this mine have produced mine- 
soils with an average specific area of 31 m^/g and an average bulk density of 1,763 
kg/m^. The bulk density of the area first decreased and then increased with depth. 
Evapotranspiration, determined using microlysimeters , could be approximated by either 
class A pan evaporation (1.8 mm/d) or by model results (1.3 mm/d) . There were large 
spatial variations in the infiltration rates, water retention, and hydraulic conduc- 
tivity. The hydrologic implications of these physical properties are also discussed. 

525. Penrose, K. D. , and D. J. Hansen. Planting Techniques for Establishment of 
Container-Grown or Bareroot Plants. Paper in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid 



206 

and Semi-Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Laramie, WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish 
Dep., 1981, pp. 37-46. 

The authors discuss the use of container-grown and bareroot plants for rapid estab- 
lishment of plant cover, productivity, and species diversity. Careful planning 
of all aspects of the revegetation effort is stressed. Topics discussed include 
(1) species and plant materials selection, (2) scheduling considerations, (3) holding 
facilities for planting material, (4) methods of planting and avoiding poor planting, 
and (5) monitoring programs for the asssessment of revegetation efforts. The article 
is focused on revegetation of disturbed areas of the arid and semiarid regions of the 
Western United States. However, some of the information is applicable to other re- 
gions as well. 

526. Pentecost, E. D. , and R. C. Stupka. Wildlife Investigations at a Coal Refuse 
Reclamation Site in Southern Illinois. Paper in Addendum to Proceedings of a Sym- 
posiimi on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States (WV 
Univ., Apr. 1979). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser., FWS/OBS-78/81 A, 1979, pp. 107-118. 

This article discusses the revegetation of a coal refuse pile near Staunton, IL, with 
respect to wildlife. Attempts were made to determine if wildlife colonized the site 
during secondary succession. Surveys were made to determine the population of mam- 
mals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles at the site. The mammalian and avian species 
observed were typical of old-field communities in southern Illinois. Revegetation 
was completed prior to the study, and little information is given on the methods used 
to establish vegetative cover. 

527. Perry, E. F, Minesoil Properties That Influence Fish and Wildlife Habitats. 
Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United 
States (WVUniv., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser., FWS/OBS-78/81, 1978, 
pp. 223-231. 

This article presents data on minesoil classification in the Appalchian and Mid- 
western Coal Regions. A variety of minesoils are analyzed for chemical and physical 
properties. Data are given on how these properties influence post-mining land use. 
The author has attempted to identify key minesoil properties that influence fish and 
wildlife habitats. 

528. Phillips, J. M. , and A. E. Spooner. Dry Matter Production and Percent Ground 
Cover During Establishment of Selected Forage Species on Bauxite Minesoils. Paper in 
1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 447-481. 

This study was conducted to determine the adaptability of certain grass and legume 
species to bauxite minesoil in Saline County, AR. Brown lime was applied to the 
plots at a rate of 102.7 t/ha to neutralize the acidic (pH 3.0) minesoil. The acid- 
ity problem was corrected 2 months after lime application. All cool season species 
were planted in September 1980; the warm season species were planted the following 
April. The forage yields obtained on the bauxite minesoil were very low when com- 
pared to those observed in normal agricultural situations. The authors speculate 
that the low yields can be attributed to a restricted root zone, high soluble salts, 
and low macronutrient availability. Of the species planted, pearl millet (Pennisetum 
typhoides Burm. Stapf. and C. E. Hubb) (1,826 kg/ha) and hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa 
Roth.) (1,406 kg/ha) had the highest yields for the forage grasses and legumes, re- 
spectively. The species having the best ground cover for the cool season species 
were orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum 
L.). The highest percent ground cover for warm season species was found for pearl 
millet and common bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.). 



207 

529. Philo, G. R. Planting Stock Options for Forestation of Surface-Mined Lands. 
Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 
31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 165-174. 

This article presents an excellent discussion of planting trees using bare-root stock 
and containerized seedlings, and by direct seeding. The advantages and disadvantages 
of using each method in relation to planting season, species selection, special re- 
quirements of individual projects, planting success, and cost are discussed. In 
addition, the effects of the different tree planting methods on root form of the tree 
are examined. This includes the results of a greenhouse study where black walnut 
(Juglans nigra L.) stock was planted in minesoil using five different treatments. 
The results show the effect the planting stock has on initial root form and shoot 
growth of the trees. 

530. Philo, G. R. , C. A. Kolar, and W. C. Ashby. Effects of Ripping on Minesoil 
Compaction and Black Walnut Establishment. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Min- 
ing, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 551-557. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of ripping (subsoiling) graded mine- 
soil on the survival and growth of direct-seeded black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) in 
Saline County, IL. The soil was ripped to a depth of 85 cm by a subsoiler attached 
to a D-8 caterpillar. Black walnut seeds were then planted in both the ripped and 
nonripped plots. Seedling survival in the ripped and nonripped plots during the 
first year was 88 and 66 pet, respectively; in July of the second season it was 85 
and 64 pet, respectively. Ripping also resulted in greater stem diameter and height 
growth during the second growing season. Root excavations showed that root growth 
(length, depth, and radial spread) was significantly greater in the ripped plots than 
in the nonripped plots. Black walnut planted on nonripped plots had stunted taproot 
and lateral root development. Bulk density determinations during the second growing 
season indicated that ripping resulted in significant reductions in the bulk density 
at the O-to-15-cm depth and 45-to-30-cm depth when compared to nonripped spoil. This 
study showed that favorable establishment and enhanced tree growth can be achieved by 
ripping (subsoiling) graded surface mine spoil. It also illustrated the extent of 
soil compaction problems on reclaimed mine sites. The authors conclude that grading 
standards should be altered to provide more favorable conditions for plant growth and 
eliminate the need for ripping. 

531. Philo, G. R. , J. A. Spaniol, C. A. Kolar, and W. C. Ashby. Weed Control for 
Better Black Walnut on Strip Mines. Tree Planters Notes, v. 34, No. 1, 1983, pp. 13- 
15. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of chemical and mechanical weed con- 
trol on the establishment and growth of direct-seeded black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) 
on surface-mined land in Saline County, IL. Six experimental treatments were 
used: (1) a control where existing vegetation was left intact, (2) hand cultivation, 
(3) Roundup applied following planting, (4) Roundup and Princep applied following 
planting, (5) Roundup applied after planting and again the following spring, and 
(6) Roundup and Princep applied after planting and again the following spring. Black 
walnut establishment was significantly improved when cultivation or herbicides were 
used. The greatest seedling establishment rates were obtained when Roundup was ap- 
plied alone for either 1 or 2 years. The authors speculate that the germination and 
survival of untreated controls were inhibited by competition or allelopathic inter- 
ference from the established vegetation. The authors conclude that with weed control 
good early growth of direct-seeded black walnut can be achieved on mined land. 



208 

532. Pionke, H. B., and A. S. Rogowski. Placement of Acid Spoil Materials. 
Reclam. and Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 1, 1982, pp. 3-17. 

This study evaluated how spoil placement may potentially affect the quality and quan- 
tity of drainage and ground water on reclaimed spoil located near Kylertown, PA. Two 
caissons were subjected to leaching by simulating field rainwater conditions. Water 
content was monitored for pH, total acidity, total salts, SO4, Ca, Mg, Mn, and Fe. 
Results indicate that the placement of acid- and salt-containing spoils should be 
based on the chemical and physical spoil properties that may affect water percolation 
and O2 diffusion rates. The deeper placement of acid spoil and coarser particle size 
can substantially reduce the amount of acid drainage. 

533. Pitsenbarger , J. E. Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern United States. A 
West Virginia Perspective. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27- 
29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 61-62. 

The author reviews the impact that State and Federal reclamation laws and regulations 
have on tree plantings on surface-mined lands in West Virginia. A discussion is pre- 
sented on what the author foresees as the direction research should take for estab- 
lishing trees on mined land. One area of interest is to define tree species that 
would be economical and adaptable for reclamation use in West Virginia. Additional 
research is needed to determine which species can be direct-seeded and what are the 
most economical and efficient methods for obtaining a viable tree stand through di- 
rect seeding methodology. Research has shown that the establishment of forest land 
on mountaintop removal operations is a viable postmining land use. 

534. Plantenberg, P. Factors Affecting Plant Succession on Mine Spoil at Col- 
strip, Montana. Pres. at 34th Annual Meeting of the Society for Range Management 
(Tulsa, OK, Feb. 9-13, 1981). MT State Univ., DOE/EV/70003-15, 1981, 16 pp. 

This paper reports the results of a study designed to explain why major differences 
occur in dominance and succession on six naturally revegetated overburden sites orig- 
inally formed in 1928 and 1930 near Colstrip, MT. The major factors affecting plant 
succession on overburden are reported to be overburden texture, the condition of ad- 
jacent rangeland, postmining management, and environmental modifications created by 
early successional plant species. This article provides an excellent reference for 
plant succession on naturally revegetated surface coal mine land and is pertinent to 
reclamation planning and research in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

535. Plass, W. T. The Establishment and Maintenance of Vegetation on Minesoils in 
the Eastern United States. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 1 
(based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 
June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 431-437. 

The author provides a discussion of reclamation practices in the eastern United 
States summarizing technology at the time this article was written. Historical ref- 
erences are used to illustrate the development of specific technology. Future trends 
in reclamation technology are also discussed. The paper provides a concise litera- 
ture review that could provide orientation and background for individuals with little 
or no prior knowledge of the subject of reclamation. The information conveyed is 
primarily pertinent to the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

536. Plass, W. T. Organic and Inorganic Amendments Affect Vegetation Growth on an 
Acidic Minesoil. U.S. For. Serv. , Northeast For. Exp. Sta. , Res. Paper NE-502, 1982, 
7 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study that examined the potential of or- 
ganic amendments in minesoil revegetation treatments to produce high-density ground- 
covers or increase the yield of pasture and forage crops. Shredded hardwood bark. 



209 

composted municipal waste, and a tannery waste were applied to an acidic minesoil. 
Inorganic fertilizer, agricultural lime, and an alkaline waste from an SO2 scrubber 
system were applied alone and in combination with the organic amendments. Minesoil 
pH and specific conductance were significantly influenced by the organic amendments 
but not by the inorganic amendments. Both organic and inorganic amendments reduced 
exchangeable acidity and exchangeable aluminum. Effective ground cover (more than 
1,000 lb of green forage) was established within two growing seasons when composted 
municipal or tannery wastes were applied without fertilizer, lime, or scrubber waste. 
Where lime and fertilizers were used with the various organic amendments, an effec- 
tive vegetative cover was achieved in one growing season. The results and discussion 
contained in this report are useful to revegetation efforts in portions of the East- 
ern Coal Mining Region. 

537. Plass , W. T. Reclamation of Coal Mined Land in Appalachia. J. Soil Water 
Conserv., v. 33, No. 2, 1978, pp. 56-61. 

This article reviews the sequence of reclamation operations, from mining to estab- 
lishment of vegetative cover, in Appalachia. Infoinnation is presented on overburden 
placement, topsoiling, soil amendments, species selection, site preparation, applica- 
tion of seed and fertilizer, and land management options. The goal of these opera- 
tions is to return productivity to the land disturbed by surface mining. 

538. Plummer, J. L. The Federal Role in Rocky Mountain Energy Development. Nat. 
Resour. J., v. 17, No. 2, Apr. 1977, pp. 241-260. 

This article provides an excellent historical review of the strategic points of en- 
ergy policy development and interaction between the Federal Government and the State 
governments in the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions . 
Coal leasing, mine development, and mineland reclamation are central topics for dis- 
cussion. The discussion considers the evolution of State and Federal regulations 
through the 1960's up to 1977. This paper has been included in this bibliography 
primarily for the historical perspective it provides. 

539. Pommerening, E. Methods Used To Revegetate the Coeur d'Alene Mine District 
of Idaho. Paper in Proceedings: High-Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 5 (CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Mar. 8-9, 1982). CO Water Resour. Res. Inst., CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Inf. Ser. No. 48, Dec. 1982, pp. 106-109. 

This article describes the revegetation program of the Bunker Hill Co., operating in 
the Coeur d'Alene Mining District in northern Idaho. Elevation and aspect are cri- 
tical factors affecting revegetation efforts in this area. An underground nursery 
was established in a ventilation drift where the temperature was a constant 74° F, 
and the CO2 content in the air was 0.3 pet. Lighting was provided by 1,000-watt, 
mercury-vapor discharge lamps. No insect or fungus problems were encountered. The 
company has found that a major advantage in having their own greenhouse operation is 
that trees and native shrubs can be grown and transplanted at the proper time of out- 
planting rather than when commercial nurseries are able to make seedlings available. 
The author reports that the greenhouse operation has helped reduce costs of refores- 
tation efforts on the company's mined land. While this article specifically dis- 
cusses a revegetation program for a heavy metal mining operation, the description of 
the in-house, underground greenhouse operation provides an example of one company's 
unique method of meeting their specific needs. Consequently, the paper has been 
included in this bibliography as an example of a type of revegetation-related opera- 
tion that could be applied practically anjrwhere in the United States. 

540. Pommerening, E. Revegetation of the Coeur d'Alene Mining District. Min. 
Congr. J., V. 63, No. 3, 1977, pp. 20-23. 



210 

This article discusses the revegetation program initiated by the Bunker Hill Co. in 
the lead and zinc mining area of the Coeur d'Alene mining district in northern Idaho. 
Two types of disturbances are common within the district: (1) tailings deposits from 
the concentrators, and (2) denuded mountain slopes. Research conducted on these 
areas has focused on vegetation establishment using herbaceous and woody species and 
the development of a greenhouse program to produce containerized seedlings under- 
ground. With the underground greenhouse the Bunker Hill Co. can now collect the 
seeds and grow its own conifers and native shrubs. This program has the advantages 
of being relatively inexpensive and that trees and shrubs can be grown and trans- 
planted at the proper time rather than when they become available from commercial 
nurseries. 

541. Ponder, F., Jr. Improving Tree Establishment and Growth With Nurse Vegeta- 
tion. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees (cosponsored 
by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. Coll., Terre 
Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, pp. 90-98. 

This article provides a relatively brief literature review of the use of nitrogen- 
fixing plant species as a nurse crop, interplanted with preferred tree species. Sev- 
eral herbaceous and woody species are discussed. The article provides a good refer- 
ence for this subject and is pertinent to potential land-use considerations and to 
reclamation planning. No specific coal region is identified by the author. Based on 
plant species mentioned and the literature reviewed, this article is considered per- 
tinent to the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation 
process. 

542. Poppleton, J. E., A. F. Clewell, and A. G. Shuey. Sand Pine Scrub Restora- 
tion at a Reclaimed Phosphate Mine in Florida. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface 
Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 
1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 395-398. 

This paper contains information on the methods that can be used to restore scrub 
vegetation on reclaimed phosphate mines in Polk County, FL. Bare-root seedlings of 
sand pine ( Pinus clausa (Chapm.) Vasey) were planted on one set of plots, and height 
growth and survival were monitored. On two other plots a topsoil mulch, obtained 
from a natural sand pine scrub community, was applied and species composition and 
abundance were monitored. The results indicate that the planting of bare-root seed- 
lings of sand pine is not worth the expense, considered their 68 pet mortality, as 
long as pine seeds are present in the mulch and establish naturally. The mulched 
plots had the important tree and shrub species present in large numbers , and the 
growth of these species was substantial. The authors conclude that sand pine scrub 
communities can be restored on reclaimed lands using the mulching technique. 

543. Potter, J. L. Reclaiming Sand and Gravel Pits for Wildlife. Paper in 1983 
Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Nov. 28-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 315-319. 

The author discusses reclaiming sand and gravel pits for wildlife habitat in the 
Southeastern United States. Ecological factors that influence stable wetlands are 
given. Four topics are discussed regarding reclaiming sand and gravel pits for wild- 
life: (1) water regulation, (2) slope and bank alteration, (3) creating islands, and 
(4) establishing vegetation. 

544. Powell, J. L., and R. I. Barnhisel. Reclaiming Surface-Mined Land in West 
Kentucky. Min. Congr. J., v. 63, No. 12, 1977, pp. 29-35. 

This article discusses the factors that should be considered when planning an effec- 
tive reclamation program in western Kentucky, included climate, spoil testing, plant 
species selection, final grading, adequate fertility and lime amendments, seedbed 



211 

preparation, mechanics of seeding, and the management of seeded areas. Examples are 
given on plant response to the various treatments along with recommendations on 
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilization rates, lime application rates, 
seeding rates, and grass-legume mixtures that have been used successfully in western 
Kentucky. The authors state that poor planning, incorrect choices, or failure to 
consider the factors listed above may result in total or partial failure of a recla- 
mation project. 

545. Powell, J., and R. I. Barnhisel. Reclaiming Surface Mined Land in West Ken- 
tucky. Paper in American Mining Congress, Mining Convention Session Papers, Set No. 
3, Coal Mining I & II (San Francisco, CA, Sept. 11-14, 1977). Am. Min. Congr. , Wash- 
ington, DC, 1977, 28 pp. 

This paper reviews contemporary methods for reclaiming surface-mined lands in western 
Kentucky. It provides an excellent summary of experimentation and observations made 
over the preceding 5 years. The major topics considered include the reclamation 
plan, grading, seedbed preparation, spoil testing, fertility amendments, climate and 
species selection, seed mixtures, the mechanics of seeding and postseeding manage- 
ment, and the potential uses of reclaimed surface-mined land. The authors review 
results and comment on a broad spectrum of research findings. The paper was written 
specifically for application in western Kentucky. However, with prudent cosideration 
this information could probably be applicable to a broader geographical area. 

546. Powell, J. L. , R. I. Barnhisel, G. W. Aikin, and M. W. Ebelhar. The State of 
the Art of Reclaiming Land Surface-Mined for Coal in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. 
Paper in Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conf. and 
Expo IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., 
Inc., 1977, pp. 251-273. 

This paper presents a summary of 5 years of research and observations conducted in 
Western Kentucky coalfields. It was the intent of the authors to present this infor- 
mation so that it could be used as a guide in planning, implementing, and maintaining 
a sound reclamation program. Topics covered in their discussion include preplanning, 
grading, spoil sampling and testing, plant species selection, adaption character- 
istics of species, fertilizer and lime amendments, seedbed preparation, and the 
mechanics of seeding. Possible alternative postmining land uses are presented. This 
is an excellent reference for reclamation planning in the Interior and portions of 
the Eastern Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

547. Powell, J. L. , M. L. Ellis, R. I. Barnhisel, and J. R. Armstrong. Suitabil- 
ity of Various Cool Season Grass Species for Reclamation of Acid Surface-Mined Coal 
Spoils of Western Kentucky. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 
Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 503-526. 

This study was conducted to determine the relative suitability of grasses for recla- 
mation of surface-mined coal spoil in Ohio County, KY. Thirty-three selected cool 
season grass species and/or varieties were evaluated in comparisons where growth 
media, climate, and management techniques were similar. Each of the 33 species 
and/or varieties was established in a pure stand, with a legume mixture, or with 
'Ky 31' tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). The grasses seeded consisted of 
(1) four varieties of perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L. ), (2) four combination 
mixtures of 'Ky 31' tall fescue and common perennial ryegrass, (3) three varieties 
each of Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis L.), tall fescue, and annual winter wheat 
( Triticum aestivum L.), (4) two varieties each of western wheatgrass ( Agropyron 
smithii Rydb.) and hard fescue (Festuca ovina var. duriuscula (L.) Koch), and 
(5) single-species entries of meadow fescue (Festuca rubra L.), timothy (Phleum 
pratense L.) , orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), redtop (Agrostis alba L.), reed 



212 

canarygrass ( Phalaris arundinacea L.), tall wheatgrass ( Agropyron elongatum (Host) 
Beauv.), crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum (Fisch.) Schult.), intermediate 
wheatgrass ( Agropyron intermedium (Host) Beauv.), and smooth bromegrass ( Bromus iner- 
mis Leyss.)' The establishment, methods used were (1) liming at a rate of 17 t/ha 
agricultural limestone and (2) fertilizing with 135, 450, and 225 kg/ha of ammonium 
nitrate, triple superphosphate, and muriate potash, respectively. All amendments 
were incorporated with a disc harrow. Data collection included yield determinations, 
ground cover evaluations, spoil chemistry, and plant tissue analyses. No "best" or 
"worse" choices of cool-season grasses were made based on ground cover or yield. The 
data does indicate that a broad selection of cool-season grasses exists which can be 
successfully utilized to achieve various goals in land reclamation programs. 

548. Powell, J. L. , M. L. Ellis, R. I. Barnhisel, and J. R. Armstrong. Suitabil- 
ity of Various Legume Species and Varieties for Revegetation of Acid Surface Mined 
Coal Spoils of Western Kentucky. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrol- 
ogy, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, 
Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 121-129. 

This study evaluated the yield of 25 selected legume species and varieties grown 
on the same spoil material, with identical fertility treatments, located in Ohio 
County, KY. The legumes evaluated were (1) three varieties of birdsfoot trefoil 
( Lotus corniculatus L. ) , (2) even varieties of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), (3) four 
varieties of red clover ( Trifolium pratense L.), four varieties of sericea lespedeza 
( Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don), (4) two varieties of annual lespedeza 
( Lespedeza spp.), and (5) single species of alsike clover ( Trifolium hybridum L.), 
yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis Lam.), white clover ( Trifolium repens L.), 
hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa Roth), and crownvetch ( Coronilla varia L.). The listing 
given above is, in general, the order of their ranking with respect to yield. It was 
also found that spring seeding of legumes outyielded fall seeding. The authors rec- 
ommend that birdsfoot trefoil and alfalfa be seeded if high yields are desired. The 
recommended varieties to use of these species are 'Dawn' or 'Fergus' birdsfoot tre- 
foil and 'Williamsburg' alfalfa. If established in the spring, red clover has the 
potential to produce very high yields. No particular variety of red clover was supe- 
rior for either planting season. None of the other legumes tested are recommended 
for seeding if the success standard of reclamation is to be judged by predetermined 
target level yields. 

549. Power, J. F., R. E. Ries , and F. M. Sandoval. Reclamation of Coal Mined Land 
in the Northern Great Plains. J. Soil Water Conserv. , v. 33, No. 2, Mar. -Apr. 1978, 
pp. 69-74. 

The authors discuss the reclamation of coal-mined land in the Northern Great Plains. 
A short discussion is presented on the natural resources available in the region. 
Insufficient water is often the limiting factor for plant growth in the region. Rec- 
lamation technology must use the available natural resources to provide for efficient 
conservation of water by enhancing its infiltration and storage in the soil and the 
efficient use of stored water for plant growth. Through sound water conservation 
practices the productive potential of the land can be achieved. 

550. Power, J. F., F. M. Sandoval, and R. E. Ries. Restoration of Productivity To 
Disturbed Land in the Northern Great Plains. Ch. in The Reclamation of Disturbed 
Arid Lands. Univ. NM Press, Albuquerque, NM, 1978, pp. 33-49. 

Information is presented on the potential for restoring agricultural productivity to 
land disturbed by strip mining in the Northern Great Plains. The authors discuss the 
basic resources involved in the reclamation of mined land. These resources include 
the climate, adapted vegetation, soil, and overburden. The successful revegetation 
of land disturbed by mining in the arid and semiarid regions in the Western United 



213 

States depends primarily on the conservation and efficient utilization of the limited 
precipitation received and on storage and use of the water. The authors then discuss 
how this natural resource can be recombined to return the land to a productive use. 
Successful revegetation can be achieved by creating a plant-rooting medium that will 
effectively store precipitation, conserving the water in the plant root zone in a way 
that would enable plant species to use it in the most efficient way. 

551. Power, J. F., F. M. Sandoval, R. E. Ries, and S. D. Merrill. Effects of Top- 
soil and Subsoil Thickness on Soil Water Content and Crop Production on a Disturbed 
Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 45, 1981, pp. 124-129. 

This study was conducted to obtain quantitative data on how the thickness of subsoil 
(B and upper C horizons) and the A horizon (topsoil) affect the water extraction, 
growth, and yield of several crops in the semiarid agriculture of North Dakota. The 
site was the Glen Harold Mine, near Stanton. Wedge tests were used, incorporating 
the subsoil and topsoil in various thicknesses over the sodic mine spoils. Tested 
vegetation consisted of hard red spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), alfalfa ( Medi- 
cago sativa L.), crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum (Fisch.) Schult.), and 
a mixture of warm-season blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag.) and side- 
oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr.) grasses. Generally, all crops re- 
sponded to increased soil thickness with the greatest yields when total soil thick- 
ness was about 90 cm (75 to 120 cm range), including 20 cm of topsoil. Thicker or 
thinner soil layers decreased productivity. The crops extracted water from the upper 
30 to 90 cm of spoils when the soil-spoil interface was within 90 cm of the soil sur- 
face. Depth of water extraction by crops generally was in the following relative 
order: Alfalfa > crested wheatgrass > native grasses > spring wheat. 

552. Prodgers, R. A. Collection and Analysis of Baseline Vegetation Data. Paper 
in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great 
Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. GSM, Billings, 
MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. GSM, 1984, pp. 45-57. 

The author discusses several aspects of designing a baseline vegetation study. These 
topics include the treatment of bias classification of vegetation, measurements, veg- 
etation mapping, and data analysis. This article is a very good nontechnical treat- 
ment of these topics. The information conveyed is applicable nationwide. 

553. Pursell, P. L. Problems With Determining Trends in Land Use Changes Follow- 
ing Coal Mining in Illinois. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation 
With Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madison- 
ville Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, 
IN, 1983, pp. 1-10. 

Changes in land use due to coal mining in Illinois and the problems in obtaining re- 
liable data from which trends of land-use changes may be determined are discussed. 
The importance of accurate data collection concerning premining and postmining land 
use to determine trends in land-use change following mining is stressed. In addi- 
tion, problems are noted with lack of precision in land-use category definitions. 
Use of present definitions tends to indicate an apparent increase in forest and wild- 
life habitat, which may not have occurred. Interpretation of existing land-use cate- 
gories may, in fact, mask net losses of specific forest and wildlife habitat types. 
The author suggests rectification of part of this problem by modification of approved 
land-use categories to increase the amount of premining acreage designated as spe- 
cific forest or wildlife habitat types. It is suggested that loss of these uses af- 
ter bond release might best be resolved by the State Regulatory Authorities' accept- 
ance of reclamation practices designed to enhance the desirability of leaving land 
as forest on wildlife habitat and development and implementation of tax incentives 
for landowners designed to encourage perpetuation of a diverse postmining landscape. 



214 

While this paper was written with specific reference to Illinois, similar problems 
probably exist in many other States. Consequently this paper provides a good refer- 
ence to anyone concerned with land-use determination and changes in land use follow- 
ing mining activities and is recommended without regional limitations. 

554. Radvany, A. Control of Small Mammal Damage in the Alberta Oil Sands Reclama- 
tion and Afforestation Program. For. Sci., v. 26, No. 4, 1980, pp. 687-702. 

This article describes research which was conducted on an open pit mining area in the 
oil sands area of northeastern Alberta, Canada, that had been reclaimed and affor- 
ested. Due to a large population of meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and deer 
mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus ) , which had become established in the dense grass habi- 
tat, a large percentage of the trees planted on the tailing pond dyke were girdled. 
The major objective of this research was to monitor small mammal populations through 
a high, a low, and a second high level which corresponded to the 3- to 4-year popu- 
lation cycle of small mammals. To control girdling, a technique utilizing grain 
treated with an anticoagulant rodenticide was placed in bait feeder stations (10 per 
acre). Small mammal populations were effectively reduced from 59.7 animals per acre 
prior to treatment to 1.0 animal per acre 4 months later. By using the rodenticide, 
girdling damage was reduced from an average of 50 pet to 1 to 2 pet. The author con- 
cludes that the use of poisoned bait feeder stations can be effective in keeping ro- 
dent populations and rodent damage at very low and acceptable levels. The success of 
a reclamation and afforestation program is possible only if the role and impact of 
harmful small mammal populations are recognized as a vital component of the whole 
reclamation picture. 

555. Raelson, J. V., and G. W. MeKee. Measurement of Plant Cover To Evaluate Re- 
vegetation Success. Dep. Agron, , PA State Univ., University Park, PA, Agron. Ser. 
67, Jan. 1982, 45 pp. 

The authors provide a clear and concise discussion of the methods of measuring plant 
cover, with particular reference to evaluating revegetation success on reclaimed 
surface-mined sites. The methods for measuring ve_getative cover include visual esti- 
mation, quadrant sampling, crown diameter, line intercept, and point frequency. Also 
included are discussions on the statistical basis of point frequency cover, nonrandom 
sampling, restricted randomization, and systematic samplings. This publication is an 
excellent reference for individuals concerned with designing revegetation monitoring 
programs. The information presented is applicable nationwide. 

556. Rafaill, B. L. Establishment of Trees on Artificially Revegetated and Aban- 
doned Surface Mines. Abstract in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With 
Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville 
Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, p. 89. 

This abstract briefly relates tree and sapling data obtained from four 17- to 20- 
year-old contour coal surface mines. Two of these sites were abandoned contour sur- 
face mines in Campbell County, TN. The other two sites, located in Bell County, were 
contour mines that had been successfully reclaimed after mining by seeding with 
grasses and legumes and hand planted to black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.). The 
diameter at breast height (Dbh) of all trees (>10 cm Dbh) and saplings (2.5 to 10 cm 
Dbh) within six 5- by 20-m macroplots at each site was measured, and the basal area 
(BA) was determined. The abandoned mines had a greater BA than either of the two 
artificially reclaimed mines. Tree density was also greater for the abandoned mines. 
No trend was apparent for sapling density. Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) 
was the most important tree and sapling species for one of the abandoned mines. Tu- 
lip tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera L. ) dominated both the tree and sapling stages on 
the second abandoned mine. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) was the major tree 



215 

species established on the two artificially revegetated mines, and red maple ( Acer 
rubrum L.) dominated the sapling stage on both of these sites. This annotation is 
based on an abstract. The information provided appears to be pertinent to reclama- 
tion planning in the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

557. Rafaill, B. L. , and W. G. Vogel. A Guide for Vegetating Surface-Mined Lands 
for Wildlife in Eastern Kentucky and West Virginia (U.S. FWS contract FWS 14-16-0009- 
77-923, U.S. For. Ser. , NE For. Exp. Sta.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS- 
78/84, July 1978, 99 pp. 

This guidebook presents an extensive listing of plant species, with proven establish- 
ment potential on surface-mined sites that are valuable for wildlife food and cover. 
Information is given on the requirements of specific species for pH tolerance lim- 
its, shade tolerance, time of establishment, and growing season. General wildlife 
requirements and basic ideas on reclamation for wildlife on recent surface-mine sites 
are discussed. Specific wildlife species are considered with respect to plant spe- 
cies and planting patterns that have proven successful in West Virginia and eastern 
Kentucky. The purpose of this publication is to guide land managers, landowners, and 
mine operators in revegetating surface-mined land for wildlife in this area. Much of 
the information presented is applicable throughout a major portion of the Eastern and 
Interior Coal Mining Regions. 

558. Rafaill, B. L. , W. G. Vogel, and R. R. Hinchman. Guide for Revegetation in 
Eastern U.S. Coal Age, July 1981, pp. 76-86. 

The authors present a concise discussion of revegetation methods applicable to re- 
claiming surface mined lands in the Eastern United States. Topics discussed include 
seedbed preparation, seeding techniques, planting of tree and shrub seedlings, recom- 
mended plant varieties and seed mixtures, seeding times and rates, fertilizer rates, 
liming rates, and mulches. Excellent lists of plant materials suggested for surface 
mine reclamation are included. 

559. Raisanen, D. L. Survival of Selected Tree Species on Sites Reclaimed to Var- 
ious Reclamation Standards. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With 
Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, 
pp. 93-102. 

This article details the results of a study to evaluate different methods of planting 
trees for forestry and wildlife purposes. Twenty-six plots were established at five 
mined sites in southern Illinois. Nineteen forest tree species and eight species 
planted for wildlife were planted with four treatments. The treatments consisted of 
fertilizer, herbicide, planting seedlings into four different herbaceous cover mix- 
tures, and ripping to a depth of 24 in. Data on survival after one growing season 
are given, showing that the use of herbicides increased survival by 80 pet, while a 
difference of only 10 pet separates the survival rates of trees on various herbaceous 
cover mixtures. The results of fertilization and ripping were inconclusive. 

560. Ralston, D. S. Planning Prime Farmland Reclamation. Paper in Symposium on 
Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation in the Northern Great Plains (Billings, MT, Mar. 
1982). MT State Univ., Bozeman, MT, 1982, pp. C-6-1 through C-6-16. 

This general article deals with the planning that is involved when prime farmland is 
to be reclaimed. It discusses the elements of implementing a permanent program for 
prime farmland reclamation as required by Federal regulations. Equipment options 
available for moving overburden materials are presented. Two categories of equipment 
are discussed: direct-cast equipment, which is used for excavating and placement of 
overburden materials; and haul-back equipment, which transports overburden materials 
over longer distances. The general cost effectiveness and limiting factors of each 
piece of equipment are also discussed. The importance of overburden characterization 



216 

is mentioned as a way of determining the suitability of the various soil materials 
for restoring crop productivity. 

561. Ramani, R. V., C. J. Bise, C. Murray, and L. W. Saperstein. User's Manual 
for Premining Planning of Eastern Surface Coal Mining, Volume 2, Surface Mine Engi- 
neering (EPA Grant R803882, PA St. Univ.). U.S. EPA, EPA-600/7-80-175, Oct. 1980, 
349 pp. 

The purpose of the research reported in this document was to study the surface min- 
ing of coal in the Eastern United States and to establish guidelines for developing, 
evaluating, and selecting the most environmentally sound mining and reclamation 
practices. A comprehensive summary of the analyses required to lay out a surface 
mine is provided while accounting for limitations imposed by geology, equipment, rec- 
lamation, economics, and environmental control requirements. Methods, techniques, 
and alternatives are recommended for selecting and designing mining systems that in- 
clude soil handling and storage, overburden removal, and minimization of environ- 
mental effects of drilling, blasting, off-highway transportation, coal loading, and 
steep slopes. Reclamation procedures and planning constitute a relatively small por- 
tion of the material presented in this manual. However, this information is usefully 
presented in the context of the overall planning of surface mining operations. This 
manual was written specifically for application in the Eastern Coal Mining Region as 
recognized in this evaluation process. 

562. Randall, A., 0. Grunewald, S. Johnson, R. Ausness, and A. Pagoulatos. Re- 
claiming Coal Surface Mines in Central Appalachia: A Case Study of the Benefits and 
Costs. Land Econ. , v. 54, No. 4, 1978, pp. 472-489. 

This paper reports the results of a study that specifically addresses the estimation 
of benefits from surface mine reclamation in a case study conducted in the watershed 
of the North Fork of the Kentucky River in Kentucky. Estimates of the benefits of 
reclamation were then compared with reclamation costs from pertinent literature. The 
results of the analysis indicate that, for the study region involved, the benefits of 
reclamation occurring under Kentucky regulation as of 1976 exceed reclamation costs. 
The authors report that the incremental benefits of reclamation under the Federal 
bill as introduced in the 1977 Congress, under certain assumptions, exceed the costs. 
The authors note that even assuming the universal application of the best available 
reclamation technologies in their study region, surface mining for coal would gener- 
ate some residual external costs unaccounted for in their anaylsis. 

563. Rastorfer, J. R. Composition and Distribution Patterns of Bryophytes at a 
Reclaimed Surface Mine in Grundy County, IL. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-16, Dec. 
1981, 81 pp. 

This study assessed the natural colonization of bryophyte species on reclamation dem- 
onstration sites in northeastern Illinois. Mosses and liverworts are invaders during 
primary and secondary succession, and their presence on mine soil may indicate the 
suitability of the site for successful growth of other native plants. Three of the 
areas surveyed were previously mined; two had been reclaimed, while the third area 
consisted of spoil. A fourth area, an abandoned field, was used as a reference area. 
A list of the vascular plant species used to reclaim the previously mined sites is 
given. Thirty-two moss taxa and one liverwort species were found on the four sites. 
Based on distribution patterns and relative abundance, Barbula unguiculata , Ceratodon 
purpureus , Ditrichtmi pallidum , and Funari hygrometrica were recognized as primary in- 
vaders. Rhynchostegitim serrulatum , Brytmi caespiticium , and Weissa controversa appear 
to be secondary invaders. The numbers of bryophyte taxa differed from one area 
to another, reflecting the differences in microhabitats . The presence of vascular 
plants may be necessary to change several abiotic factors (pH, nutrients, moisture, 
and temperature regimes) in order to provide favorable microhabitats for bryophytes. 



217 



The distribution pattern indicates that, in general, mosses were unable to colonize 
unshaded bare mine soil. Three hypotheses are given for the role of bryophytes in 
plant community development. 

564. Redente, E. F. Reclaiming Oil-Shale Disturbances. Western Wildlands , v. 7, 
No. 3, 1981, pp. 35-37. 

The author discusses the problems encountered when reclaiming spent oil shale in Col- 
orado, Utah, and Wyoming. The four basic methods that can be used to mine and re- 
tort oil-shale are (1) underground mining, (2) surface mining, (3) true in situ, and 
(4) modified in situ mining. Each method poses major reclamation problems. The most 
difficult disposal and revegetation problems are encountered on spent oil shale after 
retorting. Reclamation techniques that have proven to be successful are given. Na- 
tive plant species have been shown to produce better stands over time than do intro- 
duced species. A mixture of native and introduced species may control the invasion 
of annual species during early stand development , but in the long run a seeded native 
mixture may be more effective. Treatments that help to stimulate grass, forb, and 
shrub establishment are given; these include fertilization, mulching, and irrigation. 

565. Redente, E. F. , T. B. Doerr, C. E. Grygiel, E. Allerdings , J. M. Stark, and 
E. Biondini. Effects of Plant Species, Soil Material, and Cultural Practices Upon 
Plant Establishment and Succession. Ch. in Revegetation Studies on Oil Shale Related 
Disturbances in Colorado (U.S. DOE contract DE-A502-76EV04018, Dep. of Range Sci. , CO 
State Univ.). U.S. DOE, DOE/EV/04018-6, June 1982, pp. 1-25. 

This study is part of a larger project evaluating the impact and potential for recla- 
mation following oil shale mining and retorted processes. This paper reports the 
sixth year results of this study. The principal objectives of the research reported 
in this paper included (1) determining the proper seeding practices of potentially 
usable mixtures of plant species and their relationship to cultural practices such as 
fertilization, irrigation, and mulching, (2) determining the rate and direction of 
plant succession on disturbed topsoil, subsoil, overburden, retorted shale, and re- 
torted shale overlain by soil as influenced by natural invasion, species mixtures, 
and cultural practices, and (3) determining proper management procedures for long- 
term stabilization and reclamation of retorted shale materials. The rate of natural 
plant succession was substantially influenced by the degree of soil disturbance. 
Mixing soil horizons increased the probability that annual weeds would be the promi- 
nent invaders of a site and decreased the probability of perennial species signifi- 
cantly contributing to the established vegetation communities. Introduced species 
were slightly more resistant to invasion by volunteer species. Fertilizer was found 
to be effective in increasing seeded grass and shrub production. Manipulation of 
topsoil depth and the use of a capillary barrier were shown to be the best treatments 
for supporting plant species over Paraho retorted shale. This paper is an excellent 
reference for planning revegetation establishment on spent oil shale in Colorado. 
The results are probably applicable to surface mineland reclamation throughout much 
of the Northern Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and eastern portions of the Pacific 
Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

566. Redente, E. F., N. E. Hargis , and M. Biondini. Revegetating Disturbed 
Areas To Protect the Environment, Final Report (OSM-BuMines contracts G1115082 and 
G1105017, CO Sch. Mines and subgrant with CO State Univ.). Dep. Range Sci., CO State 
Univ., Fort Collins, CO, Jan. 1984, 104 pp. 

The results and conclusions of a 3-year study at the Trapper Mine in northwestern 
Colorado are reported. The study examined vegetation response to four different top- 
soil thickness (15, 30, 45, and 60 cm) and five manipulations that included combi- 
nations of disking, ripping, and fertilizing. Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) grain 
yields were highest when soil thickness was 45 cm and the soil and overburden were 



218 

ripped. Alfalfa ( Medlcago satlva L.) yields appeared to be highest when overburden 
was disked and fertilized and the topsoil was replaced to a thickness of 60 cm. 
^Standing crop biomass for range vegetation was highest when overburden was ripped and 
soil was replaced to 60 cm. However, maximum species diversity was obtained by disk- 
ing overburden and replacing 15 cm of topsoil. Performance of most range plants im- 
proved over the 3 years of the study. The results and discussions contained in this 
report should be applicable to major portions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

567. Redente, E. F., C. B. Mount, and W. J. Ruzzo. Vegetation Compostion and Pro- 
duction as Affected by Soil Thickness Over Retorted Oil Shale. Reclam. Reveg. Res., 
v. 1, No. 2, pp. 109-122. 

This study was done to provide guidelines for topsoil thickness requirements for the 
reclamation of oil shale lands in the ^ Piceance Creek Basin of northwestern Colorado. 
The study evaluated the effects of retorted shale properties, topsoil thickness, a 
capillary barrier, seed mixtures, and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Six top 
soil-shale profiles were constructed and consisted of (1) 60 cm retorted shale 
without topsoil covering, (2) 30 cm topsoil over 60 cm retorted shale, (3) 60 cm top- 
soil over 60 cm retorted shale, (4) 90 cm topsoil over 60 cm retorted shale, (5) 60 
cm topsoil over 30 cm rock capillary barrier (barrier to salt migration) over 60 cm 
retorted shale, and (6) disturbed soil control with no retorted shale. Following 
profile construction, three mixtures of native and/or introduced species were drill- 
seeded and fertilized with nitrogen and phosphorus at three different levels. Vege- 
tation did not establish on the nontopsoiled treatment owing to the adverse chemical 
and physical properties of the Paraho retorted shale. As topsoil thickness increased 
over the retorted shale, mean canopy cover of seeded species increased. The great- 
est canopy cover values were observed on the capillary barrier treatment. The 90-cm 
topsoil treatment had the second highest canopy cover values. Mean aboveground dry 
matter production was significantly greater on the 90 cm topsoil treatment than 
all other treatments except the capillary barrier. Plants growing on the shallower 
topsoil treatments were subject to the detrimental effects of retorted oil shale. 
Aboveground biomass for the three seed mixtures were about equal; however, the native 
mixture had significantly greater canopy cover than the introduced or combination na- 
tive and introduced seed mixtures. Grass production was significantly increased by 
N and P fertilizer application, while forb production decreased significantly with 
fertilization. The results of this study indicate that topsoiling must be an inte- 
gral part of the reclamation plan for retorted shale. Without soil coverings wind 
and water erosion could result in serious air and water contamination. 

568. Redente, E. F., W. E. Sowards , D. G. Steward, T. L. Ruiter (eds.). Sympo- 
sium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Management 
(Western Reclamation Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO St. Univ., Range Sci. Dep., 
Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, 110 pp. 

The Western Reclamation Group was formed in 1981 by representatives of the coal min- 
ing industry, environmental consultants. State regulatory agencies, and universities. 
The group reviewed the regulations, policies, and guidelines for revegetation success 
standards of six Western States (Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Utah, 
and Wyoming) and the U.S. Office of Surface Mining in Denver. Subgroups were formed 
and made evaluations on four major topics: (1) land use determinations and classi- 
fication, (2) concepts of reclamation standards, (3) quantitative evaluation proce- 
dures, and (4) management of reclaimed lands. The symposium is organized according 
to these major topics. The individual articles are preceded by a statement summariz- 
ing the conclusions and recommendations of that particular subgroup. The sjnmpbsium 
is evaluated here as a whole because it provides an excellent reference for the major 
topics listed above. Individual articles were reviewed seperately and are listed in 



219 

this document by the authors' names. Evaluation of the symposium is based on the 
summaries provided by the subgroups for each of the major topics. The information 
provided in this symposium is applicable to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Moun- 
tain Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

569. Reeder, J. D. , and W. A. Berg. Nitrogen Mineralization and Nitrification in 
a Cretaceous Shale and Coal Mine Spoils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 41, No. 5, 1977, 
pp. 922-927. 

This article reports the results of a study utilizing laboratory incubation tech- 
niques to examine the rates and amounts of N mineralization in geologic strata. Lab- 
oratory incubations were conducted to determine ammonif ication and nitrification 
rates in Cretaceous shale, two strip-mine spoils, and an undisturbed soil collected 
from the Seneca Mine site near Hayden, CO. Net mineralization of N was significantly 
higher for the vegetated spoil material and the natural soil when compared with the 
shale and fresh spoil material. Nitrification of added NH4-N resulted in signifi- 
cantly higher NO3-N levels in the vegetated spoil and soil material. Rates and total 
amounts of CO 2 evolution from the geologic material resembled those from the natural 
soil. The results and discussion contained in this article are relevant to mineland 
reclamation research and planning throughout much of the Rocky Mountain and Northern 
Great Plains Coal Mining Regions . 

570. Reeder, J. D. , and W. A. Berg. Plant Uptake of Indigenous and Fertilizer Ni- 
trogen From a Cretaceous Shale and Coal Mine Spoils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 41, 
No. 5, 1977, pp. 919-921. 

The significance to plant growth of indigenous N mineralization and utilization of 
added NH4''' was examined in a greenhouse study. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) was grown 
on incubated and nonincubated samples of a Cretaceous shale, two strip-mine spoils, 
and a natural soil (Cryoboroll) collected from the Seneca Mine Site near Hayden, CO. 
Plants grown on shale or fresh spoil took up less indigenous N than plants grown on 
vegetated spoil or on the natural soil. The results indicated that initial plant re- 
covery of fertilizer N from the geologic materials equaled that recovered from the 
soil. However, fertilizer N added to the geologic material may be less available to 
plants over time compared to the same amount of fertilizer N added to soil. The re- 
sults also suggested that laboratory incubation tests could be used to estimate the 
plant-available N potentials of certain drastically disturbed lands prior to exten- 
sive revegetation programs. The results and discussion contained in this article are 
relavent to mineland reclamation research and planning throughout major portions of 
the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions . 

571. Reeves, F. B., Jr., R. Reinsvold, J. Saboloni , and A. Park. Importance of 
Mycorrhizal Fungi in Revegetating Disturbed Soils and Retorted Shale. Ch. in Reveg- 
etation Studies on Oil Shale Related Disturbances in Colorado (U.S. DOE contract 
DE-H502-76EVO4018, Dep. Range Sci., CO State Univ.). U.S. DOE, DOE/EV/04018-6, June 
1982, pp. 45-56. 

This study is part of a larger project evaluating the impact of, and potential for, 
reclamation following oil shale mining and retorting processes. This paper reports 
the sixth-year results of this study. The main goal was to examine the ecology of 
the mycorrhizal association and to develop an understanding of how these fungi can be 
maintained or reestablished in disturbed, stored, or processed soil material. Top- 
soil storage for 3 years decreased the mycorrhizal inoculum potential of the topsoil 
when the soil was left unplanted. However, this potential was maintained in the up- 
per 90 cm of the storage pile when the topsoil was planted with mycorrhizal-related 
plant species. Functional mycorrhizae did not form in decarbonized Paraho or Union 
shales after several growing seasons. No adverse effects on the mycorrhizal inoculum 
potential of the topsoil placed over these shales were reported. TOSCO II spent 



220 



shale, when leached and fertilized, allowed the formation of mycorrhizae in the upper 
30 cm of the profile but inhibited mycorrhizal formation at greater depths. This 
paper is an excellent reference for planning revegetation activities and for under- 
standing the microbial plant ecology of revegetation of disturbed areas. Although it 
specifically addressess revegetation establishment on spent oil shale in Colorado, 
some of the results may be applicable to surface mineland reclamation in general 
throughout much of the Northern Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and eastern portions of 
the Pacific Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

572. Reising, J. W. Post-Mining Reforestation Requirements of the Surface Coal 
Mining Land Conservation and Reclamation Act; Illinois Program Rules and Regulations. 
Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity With Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 
31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 25-30. 

This article reviews portions of Public Law 95-87, the Surface Mining and Reclama- 
tion Act of 1977, that relate to reforestation of mined lands. The effects of this 
and other reclamation laws in Illinois on reclamation trends are examined. Data pre- 
sented for 1976-81 show that reclamation plans are showing a trend of more land being 
returned to forest and less to agricultural land. 

573. Reiss, I. H. Crops on Reclaimed Land. Paper in 1977 Coal Convention Session 
Papers (Am. Min. Congr. Coal Conv. , Pittsburgh, PA, May 1-4, 1977). Am. Min. Congr. , 
Washington, DC, 1979, SCT No. 3, 22 pp. 

This article reviews AMAX Coal Co.'s Meadowlark Farms reclamation procedures and pol- 
icies. Arguments are presented for reclaiming former corn production areas to pas- 
tureland for beef production, instead of back to corn production as the law requires. 

574. Reiss, I. H, Total Utilization of a Land Resource. Min. Congr. J., v. 63, 
No. 10, 1977, pp. 55-59. 

This article contains a response by Mr. Reiss to the questions raised by a previous 
article entitled "We Are Farmers, Not Miners." In this article he elaborates on the 
concept that coal is a legitimate crop in terms of a long-term land-use program. He 
also discusses grassland farming as a viable alternative to cornland. Also included 
in this article is an insert that discusses the crop yields obtained on various re- 
claimed areas in Illinois. The author concludes that corn, coal, and cattle are 
still compatible. 

575. Reith, C. C. Factors Related to Reclamation Success on Graded Spoil and on 
Topdressed Surfaces at Two Coal Mines in New Mexico. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Sur- 
face Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec, 5-10, 
1982). Univ. of KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 153-162. 

The author compares the success of revegetation on 5- to 7-year-old surface mines in 
the San Juan Basin of New Mexico that have similar reclamation histories except for 
the presence of topdressing or type of soil. Differences in reclamation success were 
then related to the properties of the topdressing and spoil. Seventeen soil and 
physical properties were measured at each site and correlated with reclamation suc- 
cess. None of the 17 factors were positively correlated with reclamation success at 
either mine. At one mine, sand content was positively correlated with reclamation 
success, while magnesitim concentration and sodicity were negatively correlated with 
success. At the other mine, aspect and sodium absorption ratio (SAR) were correlated 
with reclamation success. The only parameter that was the same at both mines was the 
exchangeable sodium percentage, which was negatively correlated with success. 

576. Reynolds, J. F., M. J. Cwik, and N. E. Kelley. Reclamation at Anaconda's 
Open Pit Uranium Mine, New Mexico. Reclam. Rev., v. 1, No. 1, 1978, pp. 9-17. 

This paper presents the reclamation activities used at Anaconda's uranium mine that 
show promise in revegetating critical areas in the semiarid climate of the Southwest. 



221 



A three-step process is involved in the rehabilitation of critical areas for use as 
rangeland: Step 1, overburden analysis to select against phytotoxic properties of 
the various materials on the waste dump; step 2, document important phytosociological 
traits on overburden and compare the traits with those of surrounding plant communi- 
ties on unmined land; and step 3, a revegetation project that included intensive soil 
analysis and innovative seedbed preparation techniques. These steps indicated that 
the Tres Hermanos materials can support native vegetation that is comparable to that 
of surrounding grasslands. Long-term monitoring is needed to establish trends and 
determine the overall success of stabilization efforts. 

577. BLice, C. W. , R. J. Barnhisel, and J. L. Powell. The Establishment of Lob- 
lolly Pine (Pinas taeda L.) Seedlings on Mined Land With Pisolithus Tinctorius Ecto- 
mycorrhizae. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, 
pp. 527-534. 

This study was conducted to assess the role of mycorrhizae in the establishment of 
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) on surface mine spoil near Central City, KY. A second 
objective was to compare the growth and survival of loblolly pine between nursery and 
field inoculations of mycorrhizae fungi. Four treatments were used in this study: 
(1) Pisolithus inoculant added to uninoculated seedlings, (2) seedlings inoculated 
in the nursery with Pisolithus tinctorius , (3) control-uninoculated seedlings, and 
(4) control-uninoculated seedlings with vermiculite added. With the seedlings left 
over from this study, a demonstration study was established in eastern Kentucky on 
mined land near Quicksand. In the western Kentucky study, survival of loblolly pine 
was significantly greater when Pisolithus inoculant was added in the field (treatment 
1). The survival of nursery-inoculated seedlings decreased significantly over the 
course of this study. By the end of the second growing season, the survival of these 
seedlings was only 10 pet. After four growing seasons there were no significant dif- 
ferences in height and root collar diameter among the surviving seedlings. Mycor- 
rhizal infection was highly variable, with no apparent differences among treatments. 
After 4 years only one fruiting body of Pisolithus tinctorius had appeared on a plot; 
this plot had been field-inoculated. However, the fruiting bodies of a native mycor- 
rhizal fungus , Thelephora terrestris , appeared on several plots . The survival and 
growth of loblolly pine planted at the demonstration site in eastern Kentucky were 
better than those of pine planted in western Kentucky. Mycorrhizal infection was 
also greater at the eastern Kentucky site. The authors conclude that the poor survi- 
val of nursery-inoculated seedlings suggests that the "tailoring" of loblolly pine 
with Pisolithus tinctorius may not always be the best approach on limed and ferti- 
lized surface-mined soils since field inoculation enhanced pine survival. 

578. Richards, T. W. , and D. H. Graves. Direct Seeding Study With Mulch Treat- 
ments After 5 Years. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With 
Trees cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Pudue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madisonville 
Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, pp. 145-201. 

Results reported are from a study of direct seeding of 15 tree species in barren mine 
spoils mulched with hardwood bark, water-borne fiber mulch, and a composted municipal 
garbage-sewage sludge product with the trade name of Real Earth. Germination rates 
averaged greater than 30 pet for northern red oak ( Quercus rubra L.), bur oak ( Quer- 
cus macrocarpa ) Michx.), Ohio buckeye ( Aesculus glabra Willd.), Chinese chestnut 
( Castanea mollissima ) Blume) , Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.), and loblolly 
pine ( Pinus taeda L.). After 5 years Virginia pine had decreased substantially, and 
most loblolly pine seedlings had died. Survival for the four hardwood species, which 
had highest germination rates ranged from 64 to 100 pet for the 5 years. The effects 
of the mulching treatments were not conclusive. By the end of five growing seasons. 



222 

the control plot had the highest average stocking for all species tested. This re- 
port provides germination and survival data pertinent to revegetation activities in- 
volving the direct-seeding method. The study was conducted in Breathitt County, KY, 
but the results would probably be applicable to revegetation activities throughout 
the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Regions recognized in this evaluation process. 

579. Richards, T. W., W. C. McComb, and D. H. Graves. Small Mammal Damage in 
Surface Mine Tree Plantings. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 
Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lex- 
ington, KY, 1983, pp. 407-411. 

This general article contains information on the impact that small mammals have on 
tree plantings in eastern Kentucky. The predation of direct-seeded tree species by 
mice of the genus Peromsycus may be a cause of low germination and in some cases com- 
plete failure of direct-seeding trials in existing cover. When tree seedlings are 
used, voles (Microtus spp.) and cottontail rabbits ( Sylvilagus floridanus ) may impact 
seedling survival on mined land by basal gnawing or girdling of the tree species. 
The authors state that successful tree plantings and direct seeding in existing cov- 
er, where small mammal populations exist, depend on recognizing and dealing with the 
predation problem. 

580. Richards, T. W. , R. F. Wittwer, and D. H. Graves. Direct Seeding Oaks for 
Surface Mine Reclamation. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post Mining Productivity With 
Trees (Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, 
pp. 57-62. 

The results of four separate studies are summarized in this article. All four stud- 
ies looked at the feasibility of direct-seeding oak tree species on mined land in 
Kentucky. Treatments included fertilization, mulches, and herbaceous cover, each 
considered separately and in combination. The oak species studied included north- 
ern red oak ( Quercus rubra L.), pin oak ( Quercus palustris Muenchh.), chestnut oak 
( Quercus prinus L.), bur oak ( Quercus macrocarpa Michx.), and sawtooth oak ( Quercus 
acutissima Carruth.). Data summarizing the stocking percentage and height growth for 
each treatment are given. Results show that mulching and fertilizing gave the best 
results, but herbaceous cover seriously impairs survival and growth. 

581. Richards, T. W. , R. F. Wittwer, and D. H Graves. Feasibility of Direct Seed- 
ing Trees on Surface Mines in Kentucky. Paper in Vegetative Rehabilitation and 
Equipment Workshop 36th Annual Report (Denver, CO, Feb. 4-5, 1982). U.S. For. Ser. 
Equip. Dev. Cen. , Missoula, MT, 1982, pp. 39-44. 

The authors discuss the development of a planting machine that is capable of planting 
(direct-seeding) large-seeded tree species on surface-mined land in Kentucky. Adap- 
tations were made on a Cole multiflex unit planter. It was found that the planter 
was capable of planting large-seeded tree species in loose mine spoil but had limited 
ability on steep slopes. Further experimentation is needed to develop a planting 
machine suited to the variable site characteristics encountered on surface-mined 
land. 

582. Richardson, B. Z,, and E. E. Farmer. Changes in Sodium Adsorption Ratios 
Following Revegetation of Coal Mine Spoils in Southeastern Montana. U.S. For. Ser., 
Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. Ogden, UT, Res. Pap. INT-287, May 1982, 4 pp. 

The results of a 7-year study of the change in sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) follow- 
ing revegetation of coal mine spoils in southeastern Montana are presented. SAR val- 
ues decreased from greater than 12 to less than 3 within 5 to 7 years. Biomass pro- 
duction increased, further decreasing the relative proportion of sodium ions in 
sodic spoils. This study was conducted at the Decker coal mine. The results and 
discussion contained in the report are useful to planning reclamation activities in 
portions of the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions . 



223 



583. Richardson, B. Z., and T. P. Trussell. Species Diversity for Wildlife as a 
Consideration in Revegetating Mined Area. Paper in Shrub Establishment on Distrubed 
Arid and Semi -Arid Land (Proc. Sjmp., Laramie, WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish 
Dep., 1981, pp. 70-80. 

The methods used to promote vegetative diversity on reclaimed portions of five mine- 
sites are discussed. The mines used in the study were located in Idaho, Nevada, and 
Wyoming. The spoils at all of the test sites were amended with fertilizer. Mulch 
was applied to three of the sites. Rapid ground cover establishment was the initial 
objective at all five sites. Once established, increasing species diversity and 
reestablishment of native shrubs became important. A constant ratio of shrubs to 
grasses over time was obtained by interseeding shrubs with grasses during direct- 
seeding operations. The authors feel that adding organic matter and ameliorating 
specific growth-limiting characteristics encourage natural succession and species di- 
versity on reclaimed mined lands. The methods and discussions contained in this 
article are applicable to revegetation efforts on surface coal mine lands through- 
out major portions of the Northern Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions. 

584. Richardson, P. Federal Mining Law Endangers Usibelli's Reclamation Efforts. 
Alaska Constr. Oil, v. 20, No. 5, 1977, pp. 20-26. 

The author discusses several problems that exist with the Surface Mining Control and 
Reclamation Act of 1977 and the reclamation of Alaska's surface-mined land. Several 
of the regulations do not seem to apply to Usibelli Coal Mining Co.'s operations, 
which had field-proven reclamation success prior to the passage of Public Law 95-87. 
For example, the requirement that topsoil must be stockpiled and replaced does not 
apply in certain situations in Alaska. In Usibelli's case topsoil was either very 
thin or nonexistent. Yet using the extracted overburden or innerburden, success- 
ful vegetation establishment was achieved. The author then discusses several of the 
strategies that have been used to successfully reclaim mined land in Alaska and rec- 
lamation projects that are planned for in the future. 

585. Richardson, S. G. Quantitative Revegetation Standards for Situations Where 
Woody Vegetation Communities Are Converted to Herbaceous Communities . Paper in Sym- 
posium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, & Manage- 
ment (Western Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO St. Univ., Range Sci. Dep., 
Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 53-55. 

The author provides a brief discussion of two possible methods for evaluating revege- 
tation success on areas where woody vegetation is converted to predominantly herbace- 
ous vegetation after mining. The first method uses burned or chained areas in close 
proximity to the reclaimed site for reference areas. In the second method regres- 
sion equations relating such parameters as percent total vegetative cover or percent 
herbaceous cover to percent tree cover are determined. The postmining revegetation 
standard is then adjusted accordingly. The methods described in this paper are ap- 
plicable to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions recog- 
nized in this evaluation process. 

586. Richardson, S. G. , and C. M. McKell. Salt Tolerance of Two Saltbush Species 
Grown in Processed Oil Shale. J. Range Manage., v. 33, No. 6, Nov. 1980, pp. 460- 
462. 

This paper reports the results of a greenhouse study that evaluated the tolerance of 
fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) and cuneate saltbush ( Atriplex 
cuneata A.Nels.) to salt in processed oil shale over an EC range of 4 to 38 mmho/cm. 
Both species survived and grew at salinities as high as 38 mmho/cm. However, cune- 
ate saltbush was more salt tolerant than fourwing saltbush. The species exhibited 



224 

differing growth responses dependent on the particular salt or salts in the soil 
solution. The results and discussion are applicable to surface coal mine revegeta- 
tion efforts in major portions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal 
Mining Regions . 

587. Rickard, W. H. , and R. H. Sauer. Land Rehabilitation Research at Pacific 
Northwest Laboratories: A Brief Summarization for Presentation at Argonne National 
Laboratory. Battelle Pac. NW Lab., Richland, WA, Jan. 1977, 21 pp. 

This publication provides brief descriptions of reclamation research conducted by the 
Pacific Northwest Laboratories. The four research projects included in the report 
are listed and briefly described. (1) Primary Productivity and Grazing Potential of 
Undisturbed Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass Communities - This study collected produc- 
tivity data from an area in the sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-bluebunch wheatgrass 
( Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & S^iith) region of the United States that has a 
long history of no grazing. These data are viewed in conjunction with data from a 
controlled cattle grazing study to determine the capacity of this ecosystem to sus- 
tain moderate grazing pressure, to measure weight gains of cattle while on sagebrush- 
bluebunch wheatgrass pastures, and to study dietary preferences of the cattle. Re- 
productive capacity of the important cattle forage grasses was decreased by grazing. 
Gross changes in plant communities are anticipated under moderate grazing intensi- 
ties. The study was conducted on the U.S. ERDA Hanford Reservation in south-central 
Washington. (2) Response of Sagebrush-Bluebunch Wheatgrass Communities to Severe 
Soil Disturbances - This study examined secondary succession on abandoned dry land 
wheat fields on the U.S. ERDA Hanford Reservation. After 30 years native plants were 
still poorly represented. The fields were dominated by introduced weed species, es- 
pecially cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum L.). (3) Plant Cover on Stressful Habitats of 
Natural Origin - This study examined species composition and canopy cover on steep 
slopes having either north or south aspect. The study was conducted in south-central 
Washington. Cheatgrass provided a significant portion of the vegetation on south- 
facing slopes. Native vegetation is more significant on north-facing slopes. It was 
concluded that south-facing slopes in this region are not conducive to establish- 
ment of native perennial grasses. (4) Rehabilitation of Surface Mine Lands by Water 
Harvest - This study involved radical modification of the topography of a minesite to 
accumulate precipitation and placement of topsoil in sufficient depth to store ade- 
quate amounts of this water to enable growth of plants that exhibit higher productiv- 
ity and higher economic value than those typically used under conventional land res- 
toration practices. This project is reported in more detail in other entries in this 
bibliography. The ratings assigned to keywords in the evaluation process refer to 
this publication as a whole and not to each individual research project. The in- 
formation presented and the research discussed are useful to revegetation planning 
in portions of the Northern Great Plains, Pacific, and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining 
Regions. 

588. Rickard, W. H. , and J. L. Warren. Canopy Cover and Phytomass Comparisons of 
Steep Slopes Planted to Cheatgrass. Northwest Sci., v. 55, No. 1, 1981, pp. 40-43. 

An earth mound was formed in the State of Washington with steep north- and south- 
facing slopes. The mound was planted with cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum L.) in 1971 
and monitored in 1978 to evaluate plant cover on the two slopes. The north-facing 
slope greatly outproduced the south-facing slope, with live, aboveground phytomass of 
830 g/cm^ compared with 163 g/cm^ for the south-facing slope. This greater produc- 
tion was attributed to more favorable temperature and water conditions on the north 
slopes rather than to soil nutrient differences. 

589. Ries, R. E. Supplemental Water for the Establishment of Perennial Vegetation 
on Strip-Mined Lands. ND Farm Res., v. 37, No. 6, 1980, pp. 21-23. 



225 

This research was conducted to determine the density and dry matter production of pe- 
rennial vegetation established on mined land in North Dakota which had natural pre- 
cipitation supplemented by irrigation. Two separate studies are detailed in this pa- 
per. The first study utilized treatments consisting of two water levels (natural 
precipitation and natural precipitation + irrigation) , two planting dates (end of May 
and end of July) , and two species mixtures (an introduced forage mixture and a native 
forage mixture). The second study utilized four water treatments and a single forage 
mixture. The water used for irrigation in the second study was of poor quality (EC 
of 3.0 to 4.0 mmho/cm^). The results of the first study indicated that supplemental 
irrigation water can help insure a fast and successful establishment of perennial 
vegetation, especially when natural precipitation is low. Supplemental irrigation 
will also permit planting later in the growing season, which may help to control 
weedy species. Supplemental water applied at different levels may also provide some 
control over the final species composition in newly established stands. The prelimi- 
nary results from the second study indicated that the use of poor-quality water in 
the establishment of vegetation had no detrimental effects on the vegetation. The 
author concludes that supplementing natural precipitation may provide protection 
against plant establishment failures and warrants consideration as a reclamation 
technique when water is available and the cost of failure is high. 

590. Ries, R. E., and L. Hofmann. Pasture and Hayland: Measures of Reclamation 
Success. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclama- 
tion on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. 
GSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. GSM, 1984, pp. 307- 
317. 

This paper reviews information gained from 8 years of research on a reclaimed grass- 
land in North Dakota. Several characteristics of a reclaimed and two unmined grass- 
lands used for tame pastureland were quantified and evaluated as measures for deter- 
mining reclamation success. These characteristics included vegetation and animal 
productivity, ground cover, soil loss, species composition and numbers, and seasonal- 
ity. The authors express the view that vegetative productivity and ground cover pro- 
vide appropriate measures for documenting reclamation success for the postmine use of 
pasture and occasional hay production. The information conveyed is applicable to 
designing revegetation monitoring programs in major portions of the Northern Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

591. Ries, R. E., F. M. Sandoval, and J. F. Power. Reclamation of Disturbed Lands 
in the Lignite Area of the Northern Plains. Paper in Technology and Use of Lignite 
(Proc. symp. cosponsored by U.S. ERDA and Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, May 18-19, 
1977). U.S. DGE, GFERC/lC— 77/1 , 1977, pp. 309-327. 

This article provides a good overview of the status of reclamation techniques and re- 
search in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. A review of some of the 
current reclamation research is provided, together with pertinent soil characteriza- 
tion and yield data. Trends of data and tentative conclusions are discussed. 

592. Riley, R. K. , and M. L. Brown. The Natural Invasion of Wildlife Food and 
Cover Species Onto Bitiminous Coal Spoil. Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and 
Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Ser. , FWS/OBS-78/81 , 1978, pp. 376-379. 

This study reports on the natural invasion of mycorrhizae-deciduous tree species 
associations onto four different bituminous coal spoils in Allegheny County, MD. A 
brief review of mycorrhizae-tree associations is given. Two fungi were identified 
that associated with several wildlife food and cover deciduous tree species, Piso- 
lithus tinctorius and Scleroderma aurantium. The naturally occurring mycorrhizae 
were evaluated under soil amendments even though they were not added to the soil. 



226 

This study suggests that deciduous tree species can be used for reforestation of 
bituminous spoil if P. tinctorius and S. aurantium are used as inoculum to form my- 
corrhizae associations. Recommendations on mycorrhizal use in revegetation of bitu- 
minous coal spoils are given. 

593. Roberts, D. R. , and S. B. Carpenter. The Influence of Seed Scarification 
and Site Preparation on Establishment of Black Locust on Surface-Mined Sites. Tree 
Planters Notes, v. 34, No. 3, 1983, pp. 28-30. 

The effects of scarifying black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) seeds and what 
scarification method is best for seeds to be sown on Eastern or Interior surface- 
mined land was studied. A field experiment was also conducted in order to determine 
what field procedures influence the germination potential of black locust. Black 
locust seeds were placed in concentrated sulfuric acid for 10, 30, 60, and 90 min. 
After the seeds were rinsed, four different treatments were imposed on them in a con- 
trolled environment germination tests. For each acid treatment one-half of the seeds 
were planted; 50 pet of the seeds were watered immediately, and 50 pet had a 72-h 
water delay. The other half of the acid-treated seeds were dried at 34° C for 24 h 
and then either watered (50 pet) or were subjected to a water delay (50 pet). The 
only significant effect found for increasing seed germination were the 60- and 90-min 
acid treatments. Germination was increased from 16 pet for nonscarified seeds to 56 
and 46 pet for the 60- and 90-min treatments, respectively. The field trial utilized 
seeds that were scarified for 60 min, rinsed, and oven dried at 34° C overnight. The 
field treatments consisted of 2.4 cm of bark mulch and bare spoil. None of the scar- 
ified seeds survived when seeded on the bare mine spoil. Seedling survival was sig- 
nificantly increased by using bark mulch. If the environment is unfavorable for the 
establishment of black locust, the authors recommend decreasing the seed scarifica- 
tion treatment. This results in greater innate protection of the seed by the seed 
coat. 

594. Roberts, H. A. (ed). Decision Analysis for Abandoned Mine Reclamation Site 
Selection and Planning. Decision Analysis Task Force of the Illinois Institute of 
Natural Resources. Project No. 90.012, Doc. No. 79/29, Aug. 1979, 256 pp. 

The focus of this report is the application of decision analysis to the selection of 
abandoned mine sites throughout Illinois for reclamation. The report consists of six 
independently written chapters treating various aspects of the problem. An over- 
all unified methodology incorporating all categories of pertinent factors is not pre- 
sented. The chapters discuss overall modeling framework, and handling social, poli- 
tical, economic, environmental, and regional water quality considerations within that 
decision analysis framework. The purpose of this report was to provide a framework 
within which to apply pertinent state-of-the-art theory and methods of decision anal- 
ysis to making environmental management decisions at the State level. While this 
report was written specifically for reclamation efforts of the abandoned mined lands 
of Illinois , the methods discussed could have significantly beneficial application in 
other States and surface coal mining regions. 

595. Robertson, S. D. , and R. F. Wittwer. The Effects of Slit-Applied Fertilizer 
Treatments on Growth and Survival of Sycamore and Cottonwood Planted on Minespoil. 
Paper in 1983 Sinnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 483-488. 

This study examined the effects of slit-applied fertilizers on the growth and survi- 
val of eastern cottonwood ( Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) and American sycamore 
( Platanus occidentalis L.) planted on mountain-top removal spoil in Bell County, KY. 
Two separate studies were conducted to evaluate both bulk and slow-release tablets. 
The first study compared four levels of slow-release fertilizer in tablet form to a 
surface-applied bulk fertilizer and an unfertilized control. Fertilization had no 



227 

effect on the survival of cottonwood or sycamore during the second or third growing 
season. However, there were significant treatment differences for height and root 
collar diameter. For cottonwood, control plots had lower heights and root collar 
diameters than the fertilized plots. Broadcast fertilizer was less effective in 
stimulating growth than the tablet form fertilizers. Broadcast fertilizer treatments 
resulted in lower sycamore root collar diameters than the other fertilizer treat- 
ments. The second study utilized slit-applied slow-release fertilizer tablets. An 
untreated control was compared to low and high levels of N only, P only, and N plus P 
treatments. Survival of both species was significantly higher on control plots than 
on fertilized plots . The high P and the high P plus high N treatments resulted in 
the lowest survival rates for both species. The authors conclude that slit-applied, 
slow-release fertilizer tablets did not affect seedling survival; however, slit- 
applied bulk fertilizers decreased survival and should be avoided except with ex- 
tremely acid-tolerant species such as black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.). 

596. Rogers, L. E. , and W. H. Rickard. Terrestrial Ecology. Paper in Pacific 
Northwest Laboratory Annual Report for 1979 to the DOE Assistant Secretary for Envi- 
ronment. Part 2. Econological Sciences. Pac. NW Lab., Battelle, Richland, WA, PNL- 
3300 PTZ, Feb. 1980, pp. 3-11. 

This paper presents summaries of two studies conducted as part of the Terrestrial 
Ecology program of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory. The research reported was con- 
ducted on the Arid Lands Ecology Reserve, part of the Hanford National Environmental 
Research Park in south-central Washington. The first study examined wildlife uti- 
lization of disturbed plant communities. The study compares the vegetation, ground- 
dwelling beetles, small mammals, birds, and large mammals on adjacent replicated 
plots of native bunchgrass and cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum L.) community types. 
Early season vegetative production was similar on both types of plots. Vegetative 
production was greater in the cheatgrass community types as the season progressed. 
Canopy cover and species diversity was greater for the native bunchgrass communities. 
The cheatgrass communities were more productive than the native bunchgrass communi- 
ties. The second study presented an examination of the response of shrubs to severe 
drought as measured by litterfall collection. Growth of shrubs, as measured by the 
amount of collected litterfall, was limited during the drought year of 1977. Grease- 
wood ( Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.) produced more litterfall than did the 
other shrub species studied. Hopsage ( Grayia spinosa (Hook.) Moq.) failed to produce 
leaves during the drought year. While the research reported in this paper was not 
directly related to reclamation of surface coal mines , the information presented will 
be useful in considering options for revegetation of such land in portions of the 
Pacific, Northern Great Plains, and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

597. Rogowski, A. S., H. B. Pionke, and J. G. Broyan. Modeling the Impact of 
Strip Mining and Reclamation Processes on Quality and Quantity of Water in Mined 
Areas: A Review. J. Environ. Qual. , v. 6, No. 3, 1977, pp. 237-244. 

The authors provide a concise literature review of the parameters affecting the hy- 
drology of the spoil system. Studies of acid generation, neutralization, and trans- 
formation in strip-mine spoil materials, spoil water flow, oxygen diffusion, surface 
runoff, erosion, evapotranspiration, and temperature distributions within spoil banks 
are reviewed. The authors discuss the potential for modeling the hydrology and the 
acid-producing areas of a spoil system. While the article is written with a nation- 
wide perspective, much of the literature reviewed is based on studies conducted in 
the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Regions. 

598. Rosso, W. A. Revegetation Augmented by Reuse of Treated Acid Mine Drainage. 
Paper in 1980 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 1-5, 1980) Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1980, pp. 1-8. 



228 

The author evaluates the use of treated acid mine drainage (AMD) as irrigation water. 
The AMD was treated with limestone prior to irrigation. Four test programs were 
utilized: (1) irrigation with treated AMD containing sludge, (2) irrigation with 
treated AMD with sludge removed, (3) irrigation with untreated AMD, and (4) no irri- 
gation. Prior to irrigation spoil materials were characterized, and all plots were 
limed, fertilized, and seeded. Monitoring of the spoil material was conducted to 
document any changes in soil chemistry during irrigation. Runoff was also monitored, 
and it was determined that irrigation with untreated AMD had no detrimental effects 
on water quality. The effects of the various irrigation treatments on vegetative 
cover and production were evaluated. When compared to the control, all three irriga- 
tion treatments enhanced the vegetation in terms of production and cover. There ap- 
pears to be an advantage to both the vegetation and water quality when irrigating 
with acidic water on the types of spoils used. 

599. Rosso, W. A., and B. H. Wolcott, Jr. Wildlife Option in Kentucky. Paper in 
Fifth Symposivrai on Surface Mining and Reclamation (NCA/BCR Coal Conference and Expo 
IV, Louisville, KY, Oct. 18-20, 1977). Natl. Coal Assoc, and Bit. Coal Res., Inc., 
1977, pp. 20-23. 

This paper presents a new wildlife option for Kentucky State reclamation regulations. 
Specific regulatory guidelines are presented. The plans and their initial implemen- 
tation for the first reclamation project approved under these new regulations are 
evaluated. This project was located at the Ken Mine in Ohio County, KY. Few results 
are included. However, the approach described and the guidelines presented for the 
new regulation may be of interest to individuals planning reclamation projects in the 
Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Region. 

600. Rothwell, F. M. Mycorrhizal Associates of Plant Species Found on Planted and 
Orphan Mine Sites. Abstract of paper presented at the Meeting of the American Coun- 
cil for Reclamation Research (Univ. AL, Sept. 19-22, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 
1980, pp. 61-64. 

The author describes the occurence of mycorrhizal fungi associations on (1) planned 
revegetation sites mined in the early to mid-sixties in Kentucky, (2) orphan sites 
mined in the late forties or early fifties in Kentucky, and (3) orphan sites mined in 
the early to mid-sixties in Tennessee. The planned sites were graded and planted 
to woody and herbaceous species without mulch. Lime and fertilizer were added as 
needed. Vegetation at the time of the study varied between sites; however, the oc- 
currence of mycorrhizal fungi was basically equivalent among sites , with 80 pet of 
the plant samples from the planned sites and 75 pet of the samples from orphan sites 
infected. In all cases, about 90 pet of the fungi occurrences were endomycorrhizal. 

601. Rothwell, F. M. , and W. G. Vogel. Mycorrhizae of Planted and Volunteer Vege- 
tation on Surface-Mined Sites. U.S. For. Ser. NE For. Exp. Sta. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE- 
66, 1982, 12 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study that examined the presence and type 
of mycorrhizae associated with planted and volunteer herbaceous and wood species on 
surface-mined sites in north-central Tennessee and southwestern Kentucky. An exten- 
sive list of host vegetation species is presented. The information contained in this 
report will be useful to individuals planning revegetation efforts and/or research 
on surface-mined lands in major portions of the Eastern and Interior Coal Mining 
Regions . 

602. Rowell, C. E., and S. B. Carpenter. Black Locust Biomass Prediction on East- 
ern Kentucky Strip Mines. South. J. Appl. For., v. 7, 1983, pp. 27-30. 

Regression equations to predict the dry weight of aboveground biomass of black locust 
(Robinla pseudoacacia L.) were developed from a sample of 1,420 trees collected in 



229 

130 direct-seeded stands located on 10 reclaimed strip mines in the eastern Kentucky 
Cumberland Plateau. Initially, 10 regression equations using the log 10 transforma- 
tion of diameter squared times height were developed for each of the 1- to 10-year- 
old age classes within the sample. By consolidating the 1- to 4-year and 5- to 10- 
year age classes, two equations were selected that best estimated woody biomass. 
These two equations provided a better estimation of individual tree woody biomass, in 
each age class, than did a single equation, which can either overestimate or under- 
estimate the total woody biomass in a stand. 

603. Rowell, C. E., and S. B. Carpenter. Site Quality and Prediction of Black 
Locust Biomass Production on Surface Mine Sites in Eastern Kentucky. Paper in 1982 
Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, 
KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY,. 1982, pp. 231-236. 

Site quality and biomass production evaluations were made on 127 existing black lo- 
cust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands, ranging in age from 2 to 10 years, located on 
10 surface mine sites in the eastern Kentucky Cumberland Plateau Region. The objec- 
tives of this study were to (1) present individual tree and site biomass equations 
which predict aboveground woody biomass, (2) evaluate site and stand variables to de- 
termine their accuracy in predicting site biomass production, (3) assess existing 
productivity and establish site classes ("good" or "poor") for new mine spoils, and 
(4) derive procedures and statistics to assess the potential or existing growth of 
black locust stands on mine spoil. Procedures included harvesting all aboveground 
portions of each tree located within a 10-m^ plot and conducting soil analyses at 
each site. Tables and equations are given for individual tree weight predictions to 
aid in determining actual standing biomass or annual biomass production on a site. 
Productivity classes were established using site-stand characteristics of existing 
black locust stands. A site classification equation is also given to assign an an- 
nual black locust growth value to new unreclaimed mine soils. 

604. Rowell, M. J. Continued Studies of Soil Improvement and Revegetation of 
Tailings Sand Slopes (Syncrude Canada, Ltd. contract 98-005 1-R, Northwest Soil 
Research, Ltd.). Syncrude Canada, Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta, Environ. Res. Monog. 
1977-4, 1977, 156 pp. 

The second year (1976) of a study is reported, dealing with the improvement of a 
5-year-old revegetated area on a tailings sand dike by implementation of different 
fertilizer treatments. Levels of available N, P, K, and S significantly decreased 
during the period between June and September. Good growth continued throughout the 
summer only when extra N, P, K, and S fertilizers were added in June. The most effi- 
cient use of fertilizer occurred when nitrogren was added at a rate of about 80 kg/ha 
or less. At higher fertilizer application rates there was a tendency for brome grass 
( Bromus inermis Leyss.) to replace creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) the domi- 
nant grass in the sward. Root-shoot ratios ranging from 4:1 to 7:1 are reported, in- 
dicating an accumulation of root tissue over 5 years. Erosion on steep tailings sand 
slopes was minimized by rapid establishment of a plant cover. This was most effec- 
tive where the surface was amended with peat, mine overburden, and N, P, K, and S 
fertilizers. Between 13 and 34 pet of the intercepted rainfall was estimated to 
leach beyond the 30-cm depth while plants were being established during the first 
year of growth. Rapid infiltration rates of 24.0 to 30.5 cm/h were reported. The 
seed mix used contained oats as a nurse crop and nine grass and four legume species. 
Dry weight production of oats was significantly greater than for either the grasses 
or the legumes. Dry weight production of root tissues approximately equaled that of 
shoot tissues. Root growth was largely restricted to the surface 15 cm. Greater 
proportions of the roots in the 15-to-30-cm depth resulted from deeper tillage of 
peat and overburden. Total soil respiration as well as total numbers of bacteria, 
fungi, and actinomycetes were greater from the revegetation experiments in comparison 



230 



to samples of fresh or weathered tailings sand. The results reported in this publi- 
cation are, to some exent, specific for reclamation of oil sand mining waste materi- 
als. However, they could find application in planning reclamation efforts for other 
materials possessing similar properties. The research reported was conducted at the 
Great Canadian Oil Sand, Ltd. (now Suncor) plant at Fort McMurray, Alberta. However, 
with proper consideration, a major portion of the conclusions may be applicable to a 
broader geographical area. 

605. Rowell, M. J. Revegetation and Management of Tailings Sand Slopes: 1977 Re- 
sults (Syncrude Canada Ltd. contract 98-0145-EA, Northwest Soil Research Ltd.). Syn- 
crude Canada Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta, Environ. Res. Monog. 1978-5, 1978, 141 pp. 

This publication is the third annual report of an ongoing project investigating re- 
vegetation on a steeply sloping dike composed of tailings sand from tar sand extrac- 
tion at the Great Canadian Oil Sand, Ltd. (now Suncor) plant. Fort McMurray, Alberta. 
The objectives of this research were to ^investigate methods for the establishment of 
vegetation for erosion control and to determine cost-effective methods for long-term 
management of these areas. Fourteen plant species were tested. Fertilizer rate was 
found to affect species composition of the reestablished vegetation. Seed washoff 
during snowmelt resulted in poor seed distribution for fall seeding trials. Above- 
ground vegetation production was related to the amount of fertilizer applied. The 
yield of plant roots was less affected by fertilization. Incorportation of peat or 
peat and overburden to deeper depths in the profile resulted in deeper penetration 
and yield of roots. Initial results of decomposition and microbial population and 
activity studies are presented and discussed. The results reported in this publica- 
tion are, to some extent, specific for reclamation of oil sand mining waste materials 
in this area. However, with prudent consideration they could find application over 
a broader geographical area in planning reclamation efforts for other materials pos- 
sessing similar properties. 

606. Rowell, M. J. Revegetation and Management of Tailings Sand Slopes From Tar 
Sand Extraction: 1978 Results (Syncrude Canada Ltd. contract 98-8021-CD, Northwest 
Soil Research Ltd.). Syncrude Canada Ltd., Edmonton, Alberta, Environ. Res. Monog. 
1979-5, 1979, 131 pp. 

Research results are reported for revegetation of two areas on a steeply sloping dike 
composed of tailings sand from tar sand extraction at the Great Canadian Oil Sand, 
Ltd. (now Suncor) plant at Ft. McMurray, Alberta. The research objectives were to 
investigate methods for the establishment of a stable vegetative cover that would 
prevent erosion of the slope and possibly become self-maintaining. A comparison of 
two tillage depths was conducted for incorporation of soil amendments to depths of 15 
and 30 cm, to promote deeper rooting. Fertilizer additions significantly increased 
the uptake of N and K and to a lesser extent P and S into the shoot tissues. Root 
mass production was not affected by fertilizer. Deeper incorporation of peat and 
overburden promoted deeper rooting. However, there appeared to be no advantage for 
the deeper tillage treatment over the 15-cm tillage treatment in promoting stable 
soil surface conditions. Soluble salt concentrations were reduced over the course of 
the study. Soil pH showed no significant change. The effectiveness of different 
fertilizer treatments was assessed in terms of biomass production, nutrient uptake, 
and the efficiency of use of the fertilizer nutrients. On older established areas 
where no additional fertilizers had been added, erosion-free surfaces still existed. 
However, an annual fertilizer application of about 90 kg N, 25 kg P and 40 kg K per 
hectare is recommended to maintain vigorous cover while efficiently using ferti- 
lizers. Where peat or peat and overburden are used on the tailings sand surface, it 
is recommended that fertilizer be added at a rate of 60 to 80 kg N; 40 kg P, and 60 
to 80 kg K per hectare in the first year to obtain the most efficient use of the fer- 
tilizers. Older revegetated sites exhibited more rapid rates of decomposition than 



231 

areas revegetated later in the study. Decomposition rates were correlated with 
total soil respiration and to a lesser extent with numbers of aerobic microorganisms. 
Analysis of decomposing litter residues indicated different patterns in the release 
of the major plant nutrients. The results reported in this publication are specific 
for reclamation of oil sand mining waste materials in this area. However, with pru- 
dent consideration they could find application over a broader geographical area in 
planning reclamation efforts for other materials possessing similar properties. 

607. Ruehle, J. L. Growth of Containerized Loblolly Pine With Specific Ectomycor- 
rhizae After 2-Years on an Amended Borrow Pit. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 2, 1980, 
pp. 95-101. 

The purpose of this study was to use a combination of soil amelioration techniques 
and ectomycorrhizae to determine their effects on the establishment of loblolly pine 
( Pinus taeda L.) on a borrow pit located near Aiken, SC. Plots were amended with 
either processed sewage sludge or fertilizer and limestone. All plots were double- 
disked 10 to 15 cm deep to incorporate the amendments. 'Ky-31' tall fescue ( Festuca 
arundinacea Schreb.) was then sown over the entire area to prevent erosion and retard 
nutrient loss. One year after site preparation, containerized loblolly pine seed- 
lings inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius (Pt) , Thelephora terrestris (Tt), or no 
ectomycorrhizae were planted on the site. The results indicate that on fertilized 
plots, loblolly seedlings colonized with Pt ectomycorrhizae at planting had signifi- 
cantly better survival (96.0 pet) after two years than did seedlings colonized 
with Tt (88.0 pet) or nonmycorrhizal seedlings (89.6 pet). There were no differ- 
ences in height, root-collar diameter, or seedling volume between Pt and Tt colonized 
seedlings, but Pt was greater than the control. Survival of seedlings on sludge- 
amended plots was not affected by ectomycorrhizal treatment. However, the height, 
root-collar diameter, and seedlings volume of loblolly pine on sludge-amended plots 
was greater with Pt ectomycorrhizae than with Tt or control seedlings. Foliar nutri- 
ent contents were also affected by mycorrhizal and soil amendment treatments. The 
author concludes that loblolly pine seedlings tailored with Pisolithus ectomycor- 
rhizae can be successfully established on borrow pits amended with either sewage 
sludge or fertilizer. 

608. Running, S. W. Plant Stress Physiology in Reclamation. Western Wildlands, 
V. 7, No. 3, 1981, pp. 15-17. 

The author discusses the climatic variables that are important in determining tree 
seedling survival on mined land near Colstrip, MT. Two advantages of regenerating 
forests on mined land over forest sites are given: (1) more money available per acre 
for reforestation and (2) greater control over site conditions. The plant environ- 
mental (physiological) stresses that may prevent tree establishment on mined lands 
are (1) air temperature stress - both low and high, (2) water stress, (3) soil nutri- 
tion, (4) high wind, and (5) high solar radiation intensity. The development of a 
favorable microsite and physiological toughness of the tree species, through genetic 
and physiologic tailoring of seedlings to a particular site, are two potential ways 
to alleviate environmental plant stress and keep tree seedlings alive on mined land. 

609. Rutherford, G. K. , D. Dimma, G. W. VanLoon, and W. G. Brech. The Pedological 
Properties of Tailings Derived From Three Mining Operations in the Sindberg Area, 
Ontario, Canada. J. Environ. Qual., v. 11, No. 3, pp. 511-518. 

In this article the authors describe field and laboratory analysis of profiles in 
three different kinds of tailings in the Sindburg area, to evaluate their pedological 
properties. The analyses are excellent in relating chemical and physical properties 
to original conditions of the tailings, weathering, soil amendments (lime and ferti- 
lizer), and vegetative growth. On the basis of this research, absence of vegetation 
was determined to be due to (1) coarse material, which generally is a poor growth 



232 

medium, (2) low pH, causing high concentrations of toxic elements, and (3) low or- 
ganic matter and no source of N2. This is an excellent article characterizing soils. 

610. Sabey, B. R. , R. L. Cuany, N. Oleski, and J. Barry. Nitrogen Supply by Leg- 
umes and Other Fertility Sources for Disturbed Lands. Ch. in Revegetation Studies on 
Oil Shale Related Disturbances in Colorado (U.S. DOE contract DE-A502-76EV04018, Dep. 
Range Sci. , CO State Univ.), U.S. DOE, DOE/EV/04018-6, June 1982, pp. 67-85. 

This study is part of a large project evaluating the impact of and potential for rec- 
lamation following oil shale mining and retorting processes. This paper reports on 
the sixth-year results of this study. The overall objective of this study was to 
determine the long-term fertility requirements and methods of meeting these require- 
ments on N- and P-deficient soil materials used as plant growth media for land recla- 
mation. Total biomass and total plant cover were significantly related to the fer- 
tility level of the soil. The maintenance of favorable fertility levels on the 
disturbed land included in this study depended on adequate and timely supplies of 
nitrogen either as fertilizer or through enhanced activity of natural elements of 
the ecosystem. The contribution of nitrogen to these disturbed plant-soil systems 
through biological and chemical pathways is discussed. This paper is an excellent 
reference for planning revegetation activities. Although it specifically addresses 
vegetation establishment on spent oil shale in Colorado, the results are probably 
applicable to surface mineland reclamation in general throughout much of the Northern 
Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, and eastern portions of the Pacific Coal Mining Regions 
recognized in this evaluation process. 

611. Saeed, M. Use of Sorption Isotherms for Evaluating the Effect of Leonardite 
on Phosphorus Availability in a Coal Mine Spoil. Soil Sci., v. 126, No. 3, 1978, 
pp. 157-165. 

This paper reports the results of a study that examined the effect of leonardite ap- 
plication on P availability in spoil material collected from the Glenharold coal mine 
area in North Dakota. There was greater P sorption by the leonardite when the P iso- 
therms of leonardite and the spoil were compared. The addition of 10 pet leonardite 
to the spoil materials increased sorption by 21 pet. In growth chamber experiments 
the addition of leonardite depressed the uptake of P and the growth of thickspike 
wheatgrass ( Agropyron dasystachyum ) (Hook.)Scribn.) , but improved the growth of al- 
falfa ( Medicago sativa ) L.). A substantial increase in the utilization of indigenous 
Zn and Mn was observed with leonardite. The results reported are pertinent to mine- 
land reclamation planning and research throughout the Northern Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain Coal Mining Regions. 

612. Safaya, N. M. Delineation of Mineral Stresses in Mine Spoils and Screening 
Plants for Adaptability. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 
(based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 
June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 830-849. 

This paper provides a concise literature review pertaining to the importance of min- 
eral stresses in mine spoils, methods for their characterization, and the adaptabil- 
ity of plants to such stresses. A synchronized approach of identifying the site- 
specific nature of these stresses and screening plants for their specific tolerances 
to such stresses is emphasized by the author. The material conveyed by this paper is 
relevant to the revegetation of minelands nationwide. 

613. Safaya, N. M. , and M. K. Wall. Growth and Nutrient Relations of a Grass- 
Legume Mixture on Sodic Coal-Mine Spoil as Affected by Some Amendments. Soil Sci. 
Soc. Am. J., V. 43, 1979, pp. 747-753. 



233 

The effects of fertilizers, gypsvim, H2SO4, and leonardite (oxidized lignite) on 
the growth and nutrient relations of thickspike wheatgrass ( Agropyron dasystachyum 
(Hook.) Scribn.) and yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.) are de- 
scribed in this paper. Laboratory and greenhouse studies were conducted to inves- 
tigate the effects of the treatments on (1) properties of a calcareous sodic mine 
spoil, including P, Zn, and Mn availability, (2) the productivity of thickspike 
wheatgrass and yellow sweetclover grown as a mixture on the spoil, and (3) the min- 
eral element composition of the two species. The spoil was from the Glenharold Mine 
in Mercer County, ND. The data and results are detailed in this paper. 

614. Sandoval, F. M. , and J. F. Power. Laboratory Methods Recommended for Chemi- 
cal Analysis of Mined-Land Spoils and Overburden in Western United States. U.S. Dep. 
Agric. Sci. and Educ. Admin., Agric. Handbook 525, Apr. 1978, 31 pp. 

This handbook is an attempt to standardize laboratory procedures for the characteri- 
zation of mined-land spoils, overburden, and reconstructed soil. The laboratory pro- 
cedures contained in this publication are those recommended by the U.S. Salinity Lab- 
oratory and the American Society of Agronomy. This is an excellent reference for 
individuals concerned with the characterization of soil material for reclamation of 
minelands throughout the Western United States. 

615. Sandusky, J. E. The Potential for Management of Waterfowl Westing Habitat on 
Reclaimed Mined Land. Paper in Sjnnposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs 
in the Eastern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser., 
FWS/OBS-78/81, 1978, pp. 325-327. 

This paper discusses the management practices responsible for the attraction and 
retention of game birds on reclaimed surface-mined land in southeastern Illinois. 
Breeding pair census, habitat surveys, and waterfowl nest surveys were conducted. 
Results indicate that with proper management, surface mined lands have the potential 
for serving as waterfowl habitat. 

616. Sandusky, J. Using Trees on Reclaimed Mined Lands in Southern Illinois. 
Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. Forest Ser., 
Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 17-19. 

The author discusses the planting of trees and the species used since 1956 on Peabody 
Coal Co.'s Will Scarlet Mine in southern Illinois. A review of the various Illinois 
reclamation laws and requirements is also presented. In 1974 a 10-year plan was im- 
plemented which would reclaim 2,600 acres of acid spoil; reforestation was part of 
the plan. Tree species were chosen based on (1) commercial desirability, (2) acid 
tolerance, (3) wildlife, and (4) esthetics. Both mechanical and manual planting of 
trees were done. Areas that were hand planted tended to have the highest survival 
rates. The most successful species were black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.), 
autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), sweetgum ( Liquidambre styraciflua L.), 
European black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.), 
and river birch (Betula nigra L. ) . The results of an attempt to aerial seed black 
locust are also presented. 

617. Sauer, R. H. Precipitation Harvesting and Restoration on Strip Mine Spoils. 
Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. 
for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Perga- 
mon, 1979, pp. 729-734. 

This paper provides an interim report on a water harvesting project that was con- 
ducted on the DOE Hanford Site in south-central Washington. The purpose of the proj- 
ect was to evaluate the feasibility of using precipitation collected from the slopes 
of simulated spoil banks for irrigation. The design of the project uses a portion 
of the ground surface to raise crops and the remainder to collect precipitation. 



234 

Topsoil is placed between the spoil banks to store the runoff and support irrigated 
crops. Several surface treatments have been applied to the slopes to increase sur- 
face stability and runoff. These include paraffin, rubberized asphalt, and rubber 
sheeting. The paper describes some unique water harvesting treatments to collect 
precipitation from steep slopes to increase the quality and quantity of biologic pro- 
duction of mined land. The methods described may be applicable throughout the arid 
and semi arid portions of the Western United States, including portions of the Pa- 
cific, Northern Great Plains, and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions recognized in 
this evaluation process. 

618. Sauer, R. H. Reclaiming Mined Lands in Arid Environments. Pac. NW Lab. 
(Battelle), Richland, WA, PNL-SA-9661, Sept. 1981, 21 pp. 

This report provides the rationale for the water harvesting techniques under study by 
the Pacific Northwest Laboratories. These techniuqes have been implemented at three 
arid land sites in the Western United States: (1) Hanford Site in south-central 
Washington, (2) a minesite near Kayenta, AZ, on the Black Mesa, and (3) a minesite at 
Nucla, CO. The interim results obtained at each site are discussed generally. The 
author reports that the results obtained thus far indicate that water harvesting rec- 
lamation techniques are technically and economically feasible. The information con- 
tained in this report may be useful to individuals planning reclamation activities in 
the arid portions of the Western United States. 

619. Sauer, R. H. Restoration of Surface-Mined Lands. Paper in Pacific Northwest 
Laboratory Annual Report for 1980 to the DOE Assistant Secretary for Environment, 
Part 2 Ecological. Sciences (U.S. DOE contract DE-AC06-76RLO 1830). Pac. NW Lab., 
Richland, WA, PNL-3700 PT2/UC-11, Feb. 1981, pp. 15-16. 

This paper provides a progress report for a revegetation program design to demon- 
strate the technical and economic feasibility of using water harvesting techniques to 
provide irrigation water for useful crops on arid surface-mined land. The program is 
gathering information on optimum crops , slope angles , and slope treatments in an ef- 
fort to reduce the costs of reclamation, reduce the consumption of soil and water, 
and establish productive, useful crops where only weed species would otherwise grow. 
Three demonstration sites have been established: the Hanford Site in Washington, the 
Black Mesa Mine on the Navajo Indian Reservation in Arizona, and the Nucla Mine in 
Colorado. The article describes the experimental design employed at each site but 
relates little or no results. The paper has been included in this bibliography to 
ensure that this type of research is represented in this review. 

620. Sauer, R. H. , and W. H. Richard. Restoration of Surface Mined Lands With 
Rainfall Harvesting (U.S. DOE contract DE-AC06-76RLO 1830, Pacific Northwest Lab.). 
U.S. DOE, DE 83005890/ PNL-4538, Dec. 1982, 41 pp. 

This report provides an overview of research conducted by the Pacific Northwest Labo- 
ratory from 1976 through 1981 on an alternative method of restoring surface coal 
mineland in the arid Western United States. The studies examined the technical and 
economic feasibility of water harvesting, using partially leveled spoil banks at 
strip mines as catchment areas to collect and direct runoff to the topsoiled valley 
floor where crops were cultivated. Seven treatments were tested. The studies were 
conducted in arid areas of Washington, Arizona, and Colorado. Some treatments pro- 
vided adequate runoff to produce a useful crop. Thus, it was concluded that it was 
technically feasible to use water harvesting methods to replace or augment expensive 
and inadequate supplies of well and river water in arid regions . The authors further 
concluded that water harvesting could be made more effective with further information 
on catchment area treatments, which crops are most adaptable to water harvesting, the 
optimun incline of the catchment areas, and the influence of climate. The authors 
report that water harvesting has the potential for reducing the cost and increasing 



235 



the effectiveness of mineland reclamation in the arid areas of the Western United 
States. 

621. Sawaryinski, T. J. Steep Slope Mining and the Surface Mining Control and 
Reclamation Act of 1977. Min. Congr. J., v. 64, No. 9, 1978, pp. 233-242. 

This article appraises the impacts of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 
of 1977 on steep-slope coal /mining operations and reclamation. The author believes 
that the impadt will be great on both productivity and prices and that many of the 
regulations were developed without consideration for their practicability. A summary 
is presented on the act's requirements, which will have the greatest impact on steep- 
slope mining, or slopes greater than 20°. The law is, in his opinion, regulatory 
overkill that burdens both industry and the consumer. Industry is burdened with 
regulations which contain "cookbook" approaches for method specifications. The au- 
thor believes that the statutory and regulatory language that is used in the regula- 
tions is unnecessary, overly restrictive, and counterproductive. The specificity of 
the regulations goes "hand- in-hand" with regulatory overkill. The author concludes 
that the impacts of the act on steep-slope mining are real and that as the coal in- 
dustry works towards compliance with the law the actual impacts on the industry and 
consumer will become apparent. 

622. Scanlon III, D. H. Direct Seeding of Pokeberry on Mine Soils. Reclam. Rev., 
V. 2, 1979, pp. 17-21. 

This paper details the results of a greenhouse study evaluating the direct seeding of 
pokeberry (Phytolacca americana L.) on mine spoils. Pokeberry is a perennial forb 
native to the Eastern United States that occurs on disturbed ground and is an impor- 
tant food for songbirds and small mammals. The effects of temperature, exposure, 
moisture, and substrate on seed germination were analyzed in the greenhouse, and pat- 
terns of root and shoot growth on direct-seeded pokeberry grown in pots of spoil ma- 
terial were compared with pokeberry grown on a loam topsoil. Results indicate that 
pokeberry appears promising as a reclamation plant for wildlife, but that moisture 
may be a problem when direct-seeding it. Mulching or the other techniques that would 
provide a moist environment for seed germination are recommended. 

623. Scanlon, D. H. , and J. C. Duggan. Growth and Element Uptake of Woody Plants 
on Fly Ash. Environ. Sci. Technol. , v. 13, No. 3, Mar. 1979, pp. 311-315. 

Pulverized coal ash stored at the John Sevier Power Plant, Rogersville, TN, was 
tested as a substrate for eight woody plant species. Concurrent analyses of the sub- 
strates (flyash and a soil control) and plant foliage in the second and third growing 
seasons were compared for concentrations of As, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, K, N, Ni , P, Pb, 
Se , and Zn. B, Ni , and Se appeared more available to plants of all species. Cr and 
Pb showed no increases in foliar concentration in plants grown on fly ash as compared 
with soil. Plant survival was species dependent, ranging from 12 to 84 pet with a 
mean value of 53 pet. No improvement of plant performance resulted from the appli- 
cation of 10 cm of subsoil over the fly ash. Nitrogen-fixing species appeared best 
adapted for use in fly ash stabilization. This article would be pertinent to inves- 
tigations of fly ash utilization in reclamation efforts. However, variability in 
elemental composition may limit the direct application of these results. 

624. Schafer, W. M. Guides for Estimating Cover-Soil Quality and Mine Soil Capa- 
bility for Use in Coal Stripmine Reclamation in the Western United States. Reclam. 
Rev., V. 2, 1979, pp. 67-74. 

This paper discusses the findings of a National Cooperative Soil Survey Committee 
that assembled, reviewed, evaluated, and summarized available criteria for selecting 
cover soils throughout the Western States. Cover soils are materials placed on the 



236 

surface of strip-mine spoils to enhance the establishment of vegetation and can be 
topsoil, subsoil, or overburden. Guidelines for rating the quality of cover soil and 
the agricultural capability of minesoils in the Western United States are proposed. 
Ratings are based on soil properties such as texture, rock-fragment content, water- 
holding capacity, pH, electrical conductivity, exchangeable sodium, soil depth, 
slope, permeability, and drainage. It is emphasized that these are guidelines only 
and must be updated and revised as more information becomes available. 

625. Schafer, W. M. Minesoil Restoration and Maturity: A Guide for Managing 
Minesoil Developement. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining 
and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State 
Univ. and U.S. OSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1983). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 
1984, pp. 172-185. 

The author outlines the basic concepts of soil development and presents a framework 
for managing postmine soil development based on these concepts. The author cites 
previous studies that found that minesoils can develop along different pathways than 
those followed by natural soils. This results in minesoils that are either more or 
less productive than the soils that existed prior to mining. The framework proposed 
for soil management in reclaimed systems has five steps: (1) Set land use goals, 
(2) inventory soil and overburden materials, (3) create a landscape design plan, 
(4) create a soil-vegetation plan that complements the landscape design, and (5) ap- 
ply proper postmining management to achieve previously set goals. The concepts con- 
tained in this article should be applicable nationwide. 

626. Schafer, W. M. New Soils on Reclaimed Land in the Northern Great Plains. 
Paper in Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 
1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 13-1 to 13-10. 

The author presents guidelines for selecting cover soil suitable for mined-land rec- 
lamation and a procedural framework for managing cover soil in the overall mining 
operation. Specific methods are not suggested. However, a review of pertinent lit- 
erature and interim results of current research are used to present basic principles 
and major factors to be considered in managing cover soil during reclamation of mined 
lands. The information presented is primarily pertinent to reclamation of surface- 
coal-mined land in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

627. Schafer, W. M. Productivity of Mine Soils and Native Soils in the Northern 
Great Plains. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining Hydrology, Sedimentology , 
and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, 
pp. 487-492. 

This study evaluates the agricultural productivity capacity of five strip-mine areas 
in the Northern Great Plains before and after mining. Results show that mining im- 
proved the agricultural productive capacity of three of the areas. The primary fac- 
tors involved in the improvement of land capability were increased soil depth and de- 
creased slope. 

628. Schafer, W. M. Soils and Spoils. Western Wildlands , v. 7, No. 3, 1981, 
pp. 28-30. 

The author discusses the differences that exist between native and surface mined 
soils in Montana. Potential uses of the soil before and after mining are compared. 
For three out of five mines compared, the land capability class improved as a result 
of mining. Older surface mines showed a decrease in land capability, while newer 
mines showed improved capability. Several soil factors that are limiting on Montana 
reclaimed lands are identified. These include compacted layers, disruption of nutri- 
ent cycles, sodium migration, and erosion. 



237 

629. Schafer, W. M. Variability of Mlnesolls and Natural Soils in Southeastern 
Montana. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 43, 1979, pp. 1207-1212. 

This paper describes a study conducted near Colstrip, MT, to compare the spatial var- 
iability of mlnesoils with the variability of natural, undisturbed soils. The study 
sites were a 400-ha area mined and reclaimed using several mining techniques and an 
adjacent 300-ha unmined site. Each site was divided into 500-m cells. The sampling 
selection resulted in five randomly chosen 10-cm cells spaced 10 cm to 1 m, 1 to 
10 m, 10 to 100 m, and 100 to 500 m apart in each 500-m cell. Mlnesoils were found 
to be more variable at 0- to 10-m lateral spacing, but natural soils were more vari- 
able at greater than 500-m spacing. Only two soil families were found on the mine 
area, while 14 were found on the natural area. It was concluded that order 1 (less 
than 1:10,000) or order 2 (1:10,000 to 1:30,000) soil surveys should be used on mined 
land due to local variability of the mlnesoils. 

630. Schafer, W. M. , D. W. Hedberg, D. J. Dollhopf, and J. E. Olson. Water Qual- 
ity and Soil Water Movement in Western United States Mlnesoils as Influenced by Sur- 
face Manipulation. Reclam. and Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 1, 1983, pp. 1-12. 

This study evaluated the effects of three surface manipulation treatments on soil 
water movement under sprinkler irrigation, deep percolation, and leachate quality be- 
low the soil zone at the Dave Johnston Mine near Glenrock, WY. Though this article 
does not contain specific information on revegetation, the information that is given 
on surface manipulation and irrigation warrants review. The three surface manipula- 
tions evaluated in this study were chiseling, gouging, and dozer basins. Chiseling 
is a deep cultivation treatment that serves as a temporary control for erosion and 
water conservation. It is temporary because the roughened surface is short-lived. 
Gouging is an effective method for reducing runoff from moderate intensity storms. 
The basin that is created facilitates collection of plant-available water and pro- 
vides protection from the wind. This creates a favorable microclimate for seedling 
establishment. Dozer basins are large depressions which are designed to restrict 
runoff and promote infiltration. The authors feel that gouging is the most favorable 
surface treatment for general use in mine reclamation. A description is also given 
of the sprinkler irrigation system used in this study. The remainder of this study 
is devoted to describing the water quality of the mine as influenced by the three 
surface manipulations. Soil samples from the surface treatment plots were taken at 
30 cm increments to a depth of 210 cm and analyzed. Irrigation water was added and 
leachate collected from lysimeters located in each of the surface treatment plots was 
analyzed and compared to the irrigation water that was applied to the plots . In gen- 
eral, the drainage from the lysimeters had a TDS that was five times higher than that 
of the irrigation water. This increase was due to increased concentrations of SO 4, 
Ca, Mg, and HCO3 ions. 

631. Schafer, W. M. , and G. A. Nielsen. Soil Development and Plant Succession on 
1- to 50-Year-Old Strip Mine Spoils in Southeastern Montana. Paper in Ecology and 
Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Eco- 
system, Univ. N.D., June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 541-549. 

Concurrent soil development and successional trends resulting from climate and parent 
materials typical of the Northern Great Plains were studied using a chronosequence of 
strip-mine spoils ranging in age from 1 to 50 years located near Colstrip, MT. Chem- 
ical, physical, and hydrological properties were compared to the production and 
composition of existing plant communities at these sites to determine how various 
soils enhance or limit reclamation potential. It was found that 50-year-old mine 
spoils can develop vegetation resembling that found on undisturbed sites if soil 
properties approximate those of native soils. However, only a small amount of the 
change required to form a native soil had occurred. Restoration of productive plant 



238 



communities can be more effectively realized through proper reclamation on suitable 
material than by 50 years of succession on unfavorable soils. Reduced productiv- 
ity and slow succession may result from excessive litter accumulation. Grazing or 
fire are suggested for reducing litter. This article is principally relevant to 
the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. It is a good reference for those in- 
terested in studying plant succession and soil development processes on reclaimed 
surface-coal-mined lands. 

632. Schafer, W. M. , G. A. Nielsen, D. J. Dollhopf, and K. Temple. Soil Genesis, 
Hydrological Properties, Root Characterisics, and Microbial Activity of 1- to 50- 
Year-Old Strip Mine Spoils. U.S. EPA, EPA-6G0/ 7-79-100, Apr. 1979, 212 pp. 

Soil development in mine spoils ranging from 1 to 50 years in age was evaluated to 
determine what changes take place in minesoil over time. Of interest were soil water 
flow patterns, root growth and development, and soil physical, chemical, and micro- 
biological properties of 15 sites on old spoil, new spoil and undisturbed native 
range (reference area) near Colstrip, MT. New minesoils (less than 10-years-old) 
were found to support plant communities that were functionally more similar to native 
plant communties than the older disturbed minesoils. The reclamation techniques that 
were used on the new minesoils were more effective in reestablishing productive 
grassland communities than was 50 years of succession on old spoils. The natural 
processes that were active in the development of native soils were found to occur in 
the 50-year-old minesoils; however, only a small amount of change had occurred and 
was confined to the top 5 cm of soil. Fifty years were required for organic matter 
and structure to reach equilibrium in the deeper soil layers. Up to 500 years may be 
required to achieve the levels found in natural soils. Topsoil replacement resulted 
in minesoils that were more similar to natural soils, but since topsoil replacement 
is man-caused rather than a natural process, those soils will probably always remain 
different from natural soils. Rapid infiltration rates were conmion on minesoils; 
even so, excessive runoff and erosion were common on poorly vegetated areas during 
intense storms. Because of this, rapid vegetation establishment is critical to pro- 
tect minesoils during the first years after reclamation. Water use patterns also 
differed between natural soils, old minesoils, and new minesoils. Plant communities 
found on natural soils used soil water conservatively. Plant communties on old mine- 
soils depleted nearly all of the available water in the root zone by July. This left 
little available water during a dry year when compared to natural soils. Three to 
four years were required before root systems and microbiological activity on mine- 
soils reached levels commonly found in natural soils. The authors recommend several 
suitable techniques to reconstruct minesoils. 

633. Schafer, W. M. , G. A. Nielson, and W. D. Nettleton. Minesoil Genesis and 
Morphology in a Spoil Chronosequence in Montana. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., v. 44, 1980, 
pp. 802-807. 

This paper reports the results of a study comparing selected soil chemical and physi- 
cal parameters between minesoils from 1- to 50-years old and adjacent natural soils. 
Electrical conductivity, soil structure, and near-surface organic matter content were 
found to approach natural soil levels in tens of years. Organic matter content at 
depth will require hundreds of years. Carbonate distribution will require thousands 
of years. Some properties of minesoils such as texture, C-horizon color, rock frag- 
ment content, and depth to bedrock will remain different than in natural soils. The 
authors feel that , while mine soils may differ from natural soils , they need not be 
inferior and that opportunities exist in the mining and reclamation process of im- 
proving mine soils. 



239 

634. Schivley, W. W. Environmental Solutions for Ash Disposal. Presented at Coal 
Technology '81 (Houston, TX, Nov. 17-19, 1981). Gilbert/Commonwealth, Reading, PA, 
1981, 9 pp. 

This paper presents two specific examples of ash disposal methods: (1) structure 
fill and (2) soil amendment and revegetation-reuse. Complete procedural descriptions 
of two representative examples are presented. The structural fill method involves 
burying the ash in "earth cells" (trenches), covering the deposited ash with the ex- 
cavated material, contouring and grading, and revegetation. Specific seeding, ferti- 
lizing, and mulching prescriptions used in the example project are clearly described. 
Studies using ash as a soil amendment are also reviewed. This is a good reference 
article for revegetation efforts in areas where ash is readily available, and/or its 
disposal and use are important considerations. The locations of projects described 
in this article were not given. Consequently, the article was evaluated for nation- 
wide application. 

635. Schmieg, T. Strip Mining: Turning a Curse Into a Blessing for Appalachia. 
Nature Scope, Mar. 1981, pp. 14-25. 

This article provides a general overview of surface coal mine reclamation in the 
Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions. The discussion contains nontechnical de- 
scriptions of the state of the art for several areas of reclamation and examines some 
of the impacts the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 has had on the 
coal mining industry. The article was reviewed and included in this bibliography for 
its value in providing good background information to individuals with little or no 
experience or knowledge of surface coal mine reclamation. Ratings for the keywords 
used in this evaluation indicate that these topics were considered in the article. 
However, this information was treated in a general manner. Few or no technical data 
were related in the article. 

636. Schneider, K. R. , R. F. Wittwere, and S. B. Carpenter. Trees Respond to Sew- 
age Sludges in Reforestation of Acid Spoil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Min- 
ing, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 291-296. 

The objectives of this study were to test sludge metal levels, fertilizer values, and 
application rates on the early growth of five tree species . European black alder 
( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.), cottonwood 
( Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.), and loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) were estab- 
lished as 1-0 seedlings in the spring, while northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) was 
direct-seeded in the spring. Four sludge treatments (high and low metals with either 
100 kg/ha or 200 kg/ha of soluble N present) were compared with two fertilizer treat- 
ments (100 kg/ha N or 700 kg/ha N in a slow release fertilizer). Survival of the 
tree species was highest in the plots with the high metal sludge additions when com- 
pared to the fertilizer treatments. Growth and vigor increases were also found for 
the high metal treatments , except for Pinus taeda and Populus deltoides , where the 
growth responses were not very dramatic. Leaf samples analyzed for heavy metal and 
nutrient concentrations showed significantly greater foliar N levels with fertilizer 
than with sludge, except for black locust. Visual metal toxicity symptoms were not 
observed during the first growing season. However, cadmium levels were within the 
phytotoxicity range for Populus deltoides and very high for Pinus taeda . Both spev 
cies may be showing toxicity responses along with a growth stimulation from other 
metals and nutrients in the sludge. The authors conclude that growth and survival 
increases due to sludge applications were unexpected and may have been related to 
improvements in the soil condition. 



240 

637. Schoenholtz, S. H. , and J. A. Burger. First Year Survival and Growth of Con- 
tainerized Pine ( Pinus spp.) Seedlings on Strip Mined Lands as Affected by Cultural 
Treatments and Edaphic Factors. Paper in Proceedings of the Second Biennial Southern 
Silvicultural Research Conference (Atlanta, GA, Nov. 4-5, 1982). U.S. For. Ser. GTR 
SE-24, 1983, pp. 134-140. 

This study evaluated the effects of ectomycorrhizal inoculation, chemical weed 
control, and slow-release fertilization on the first-year survival and growth of 
container-grown white pine ( Pinus strobus L.), Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana 
Mill.), and loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) planted on two strip-mined sites in Wise 
County, VA. The two sites consisted of a flat bench site and a return-to-contour 
site. None of the cultural treatments used in this study had a significant effect 
on the survival of the planted pine species. However, mycorrhizal inoculation (Pt. 
mycelia) , fertilization (21 g slow-release tablet), and weed control (glyphosate) im- 
proved the growth of all three species. When fertilizer and weed control were com- 
bined, the most substantial growth response occurred. All of the treatments resulted 
in foliar nutrient concentrations that were above deficiency levels. This indicates 
that P, K, Ca, and Mg, were not limiting seedling growth; however, the stimulatory 
effect of fertilization suggests that N may have been limiting. The authors conclude 
that cultural treatments can be used to improve the growth of pine species on strip 
mined lands . 

638. Scholl, D. G. , and S. Miyamoto. Response of Alkali Sacaton and Four- 
wing Saltbush to Various Amendments on Coal Mine Spoils From Northwestern New Mexico. 
I. Acid Spoil. Reclam. and Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 3, 1983, pp. 227-236. 

Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to test chemical and physical amendments 
for use in revegetation of acid spoils. The spoil materials used in these experi- 
ments were collected from the Fruitland formation of northwestern New Mexico. The 
response of alkali sacaton ( Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr.) and fourwing saltbush 
(Atriplex canes cens (Pursh) Nutt.) to the applied amendments was monitored. The 
chemical amendments used consisted of applications of phosphorus (CaH2P04) , lime 
(CaC03), and a wetting agent ("Soil Pen", linear sulfonate, anionic compound). The 
physical amendments and P application are essential, along with water and possibly 
nitrogen, for growing alkali sacaton and fourwing saltbush on acid spoil. The fol- 
lowing amendments showed promise for improving the growth of alkali sacaton and four- 
wing saltbush: (1) sand or ash mulch spread over the P- and lime-treated spoil, 
(2) shale or sand incorporation in the P- and lime-treated spoil, and (3) sand top- 
dressing over P-amended spoil. Wetting agents may be necessary for (1) and (3) if 
the spoils are strongly water repellent. Field tests are needed in order to make 
specific management recommendations. 

639. Schrand, W. D. , and H. Holt. Herbicides and Plantation Establishment on Re- 
claimed Mined Lands. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With 
Trees (cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville 
Comm. Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 
1983, pp. 146-147. 

The authors provide an excellent and practicial discussion of the use of herbicides 
to control weeds and to establish woody species in herbaceous ground cover. The dis- 
cussion includes helpful information for several herbicides. Application methods, 
timing of application, relative costs, and associated problems are stressed. Much 
of the information is based on experience obtained by the AMAX Coal Co. in their rec- 
lamation work. This paper is a good reference for herbicide use in mineland rec- 
lamation. It provides useful information for planning reclamation activities. No 
specific coal region is indetified by the authors. Based on plant species men- 
tioned, the article has been considered pertinent to the Interior Coal Mining Region 



241 

recognized in this evaluation process. With prudent consideration the information 
may be applicable to a broader geographical area. 

640. Schroeder, S. A., M. W. Pole, and A. Bauer. Water Use Efficiency as Influ- 
enced by Topsoil Thickness and Fertility on Reclaimed Land. ND Farm Res., v. 37, 
No. 6, May 1980, pp. 24-26. 

This article reports the results of a study conducted near Beulah, ND, that examined 
changes in water use efficiency (WUE) in response to increasing thickness of topsoil 
or first-lift material. WUE in corn (Zea mays L.) silage production increased with 
increased topsoil thickness in 2 out of 5 years. Similarly, WUE in wheat ( Triticum 
aestivum L.) production increased in 3 out of 5 years. Application of nitrogen fer- 
tilizer increased WUE for corn silage production. The results and discussion con- 
tained in this report are pertinent to reclamation planning where the postmining land 
use is agricultural cropland. 

641. Schuman, G. E. , and J. F. Power. Plant Growth as Affected by Topsoil Depth 
and Quality on Mined Lands. Paper in Sjrmposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined 
Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26-27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America, and WRCC-21, 
1980, pp. 6-1 to 6-9. 

The authors discuss the benefits of topsoiling and review pertinent research results 
from Wyoming and North Dakota. Adequate depth of topsoil applications is very site 
specific, and such recommendations must be based on the availability of material and 
the quality of the subsoil and overburden. In some cases good-quality subsoil or 
overburden can be used to supplement limited topsoil resources. The major focus of 
the paper is the effect of topsoil depth on the water relations and plant productiv- 
ity of the reclaimed minesoil. The information presented is primarily applicable in 
the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

642. Schuman, G. E., E. M. Taylor, Jr., F, Rauzi, and G. S. Howard. Standing 
Stubble Versus Crimped Straw Mulch for Establishing Grass on Mined Lands. J. Soil 
Water Conserv., v. 35, No. 1, 1980, pp. 25-27. 

This study was done to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of planting a 
spring small grain to help stabilize the soil and act as a mulch for establishing a 
permanent grass cover by fall seeding. This study was conducted on a topsoiled, re- 
graded spoil dump at the Pathfinder Mines Corp. Shirley Basin uranium mine near Shir- 
ley Basin, WY. Twenty plots, each 5 by 45.7 m, were established and fertilized. Ten 
plots were seeded in the spring to 'Otis' barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.), while the 
other 10 plots were left fallow over the summer. The following fall, the barley 
stubble plots and fallow plots were seeded with a mixture of perennial grasses. Bar- 
ley straw was scattered on the seeded fallow plots at a rate of 5 t/ha and then 
crimped. Of the straw mulch applied in the fall, only 47 pet remained the following 
spring, while 94 pet of the stubble residue remained after the same period. Plant 
establishment along a 3.05-m transect was 54 plants and 48.6 plants for the stubble 
and crimped residue treatments, respectively. Stubble residue plots also showed less 
temperature fluctuation in the upper portions of the soil, had more soil moisture, 
and produced 25 pet greater cumulative water infiltration than did crimped straw. 
Stubble residue costs were also 75 to 95 pet lower when compared with the costs for 
crimped straw or hay. The authors concluded that stubble mulch was statistically as 
good or better than straw mulch for the establishment of perennial grasses. 

643. Schuster, W. S., and R. J. Hutnik. Strip-Mine Test Plantings in Pennsylvania 
After 35 Years. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees 
(cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ., and Madisonville Comm. 
Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, 
pp. 119-128. 



242 

A reexamination of tree species trials made on bituminous spoil banks in Pennsyl- 
vania is reported. These spoil banks are primarily composed of shales and sandstones 
with pH varying between 4.0 and 6.7. Some piles had been partially or completely re- 
graded, while others had been left as steep-sided piles. These piles are small com- 
pared to modern spoil banks. Mining had occurred between 1943 and 1948. After 35 
years, 10 of the 22 original plantings remained intact and essentially undisturbed. 
Spoils were sampled at these 10 sites. Survival and basal area were determined for 
the 16 species planted. Wood production was calculated for the better stands. Of 
the 10 conifers tested, red pine ( Pinus resinosa Ait.) was most successful, whereas 
Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.) had significantly deteriorated. Wood production of 
the better stands compared favorably with that of natural stands. Tree survival was 
correlated with spoil acidity and degree of slope. Active soil formation processes 
were indicated by small changes in particle size distributions and potassium enrich- 
ment in surface spoil layers. While the most acidic spoils and the steepest slopes 
remained barren after 35 years, most of the banks have been successfully revegetated 
through the combination of tree planting and natural invasion. This report provides 
long-term data that are somewhat unique for reclamation literature. For that reason 
it has excellent potential application to reclamation planning. While the study is 
specific for Pennsylvania, application to a broader geographical area would be possi- 
ble, particularly for spoil materials with similar characteristics. 

644. Scott, M. D. Computerized Evaluation of the Wildlife Habitat Option as a 
Post-Mining Land Use. Paper in The Mitigation Symposium: A National Workshop on 
Mitigating Losses of Fish and Wildlife Habitats. (CO State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, 
July 16-20, 1979). U.S. For. Ser. Rocky Mountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. , GTR RM- 
65, 1979, pp. 622-623. 

This article briefly describes a computerized land reclamation planning system, 
called CLAIM. The basic ouput of CLAIM is a ranking of the relative feasibility of 
reclaiming a parcel of land to each of five land uses: cropland, rangeland, wildlife 
management, recreation, and high human occupancy. The system also lists techniques 
and costs for reclaiming the land to each of the five land uses. The general trend, 
based on data sets from several mining areas in the Northern Great Plains, is that 
the wildlife management land use option is often the cheapest. The computer system 
described is designed for use in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

645. Scott, M. D. Computerized Reclamation Planning System for Northern Great 
Plains Surface Coal Mines. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 1 
(based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, 
June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 412-420. 

The paper provides a concise description of a computer-based reclamation planning 
system developed at Montana State University. The system, called CLAIM, summarizes 
relevant reclamation data and permits the reclamation manager to quickly analyze the 
available options before developing the final reclamation plan. The program acts on 
the following general classes of data input: average slope, stage in mining se- 
quence, dragline mine description, shovel and truck mine description, climatic param- 
eters, topsoil parameters, subsoil parameters, overburden characteristics, surface 
water hydrology, ground water hydrology, vegetation community types, wildlife types, 
and socioeconomic parameters. The program ranks the critical environmental parame- 
ters by assigning feasibility rating units to them. The program then permits compar- 
isons of reclamation costs based on the choice of postmining land use. While this 
paper is a status report of an ongoing program, it may be of interest to individuals 
working in reclamation planning in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. The 
ratings for keywords used in this evaluation process represent the apparent treatment 
of these subject areas in the process of developing the model and the conceptual 
basis for the model. 



243 

646. Scott, M. D. Northern Great Plains Reclamation Cost Projections By Computer. 
Paper in Conference on the Economics of Mined Land Reclamation (cosponsored by the 
Land Reclam. Program, Argonne Natl. Lab., and U.S. Dep. of Energy, Chicago, IL, 
Sept. 1-2, 1981). Argonne Natl. Lab., ANL/LRP-TM-20, Sept. 1981, pp. 191-202. 

This paper contains a description of a computer program called CLAIM that was de- 
signed to act as a reclamation planning tool. The program will predict the costs of 
reclaiming coal surface mined land in the Northern Great Plains to any of five major 
land uses. The 10 most commonly used reclamation techniques are ranked according to 
general cost from highest to lowest: (1) toxic spoil rehandling, (2) topsoil strip- 
ping and replacement, (3) subsoil stripping and replacement, (4) spoil grading and 
contouring, (5) reclamation program administration, (6) ripping of compacted soils, 
(7) hand planting of shrubs and trees, (8) mulching, (9) fencing, and (10) purchasing 
seed. The relative costs of reclaiming mine sites to the five major uses recognized 
in the computer model are, in decreasing order: (1) high human use such as homes or 
industry, (2) cropland, (3) water-based recreation, (4) native revegetation (range- 
land), and (5) wildlife management. The computer program described will allow the 
mine planner to evaluate different land-use options and reclamation techniques in 
advance of the actual operation. The program described in this article was specif- 
ically designed for the Northern Great Plain Coal Mining Region; however, the tech- 
niques and analyses used may find application in other areas as well. Since this 
report deals with a computer model and not an actual field study, the ratings for the 
keywords used in the evaluation process represent the apparent treatment of these 
subject areas by the computer model. 

647. Seaker, E. M. , and W. E. Sopper. Production and Quality of Forage Vegetation 
Grown on Municipal Sludge-Amended Mine Spoil. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface 
Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 715-720. 

The authors present the 5-year results of eight demonstration sites that were amended 
with various types of municipal sludges and at various rates in the anthracite and 
bituminous coal regions of Pennsylvania. Each site was treated with a single ap- 
plication of sludge at rates ranging from 11 to 202 dry t/ha. Following sludge 
application, the sites were broadcast-seeded with 'Pennlate' orchardgrass ( Dactylis 
glomerata L.) , 'Ky-31' tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea , Schreb.) and 'Empire' birds- 
foot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L) . Vegetation was sampled over a 2- to 5-year pe- 
riod for elemental analyses of plant nutrients and trace metals. Yields were deter- 
mined from 100.09 m^ samples collected along transects at each site. Over the 5-year 
period N, P, K, and Cu concentrations remained constant; there were slight decreases 
in Ca, Mg, and Cd concentrations, and substantial decreases in Mn, Fe, Al, Zn, Cr, 
Co, Pb, and Ni concentrations. By the fifth year all metals except Cd were within 
average ranges for agronomic crops. Cadmium was well below the tolerance level. 
Dry matter production was higher on the sludge-amended strip-mine sites than on 
undisturbed farmland (reference area) in the same area. The authors conclude that by 
using good-quality sludges, low in trace metals and having sufficient plant nutri- 
ents, strip-mined land can be successfully reclaimed with forage species of such 
quality that any potential risks to plant or animal health are minimal. 

648. Severson, R. C. Evaluating Chemical Character of Soil Material for Suitabil- 
ity in Rehabilitating Mined Land in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Soil Sci. Soc. 
Am. J., V. 45, 1981, pp. 296-404. 

The author offers an excellent method of characterizing mine land (before and after 
mining) in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico, to determine which horizons would be 
best used as media for revegetation. He points out the importance of the form 
of elements contained in the soils. Although different soils may contain similar 



244 

amounts of the same elements, if they are in different forms and/or associated with 
different constituents their effects on subsequent revegetation will vary. 

649. Severson, R. C. Soil and Overburden Sampling Needs and Programs. Paper in 
the Third Biennial Sjnnposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great 
Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ., and U.S. OSM, Billings, 
MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1984, pp. 211-222. 

The author outlines a sequence of steps that are necessary to develop a soil and 
overburden sampling program to characterize a mine site before development. The 
suggested sequence in this program is (1) problem statement, (2) sample design, 
(3) sample collection, (4) sample preparation, (5) laboratory analysis, and (6) data 
interpretation. The importance of each step is discussed, and some important consid- 
erations for each are pointed out. While specific reference to the Western United 
States is made in the article, the concepts conveyed are relevant to the design of 
soil and overburden sampling programs nationwide. 

650. Severson, R. C, and L. P. Gough. Boron in Mine Soils and Rehabilitation. 
Plant Species at Selected Surface Coal Mines in Western United States. J. Environ. 
Qual., V. 12, No. 1, 1983, pp. 142-146. 

This study assessed boron availability in mine soil and boron uptake by plant spe- 
cies used in strip-mine rehabilitation at 11 mine sites in North Dakota, Montana, 
Wyoming, and Colorado. The plant species tested were initially planted in a seeding 
mixture which consisted of a wheatgrass and a legume. The following species were 
used in the mixtures: crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.), inter- 
mediate wheatgrass ( Agropyron Intermedium (Host) Beauv.), or slender wheatgrass 
( Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte) along with either alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) 
or fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). The following evaluations 
were made at each site: (1) differences in boron concentration among similar reha- 
bilitation plant species, cover soil, and spoil among mines, (2) differences among 
samples of mine soil and a single plant species within a mine, and (3) the potential 
boron phytotoxicity and deficiency conditions. Results indicate that except for one 
site, boron levels in both the mine soils and plants are not deficient or toxic over 
the region. The authors feel that soil electrical conductivity measurements should 
be the first step to determine if boron is deficient or toxic. If problem areas are 
indicated, the hot-water-soluble-boron analysis could confirm or reject the initial 
results. Using the boron results, along with electrical conductivity and pH, predic- 
tions can be made for boron accumulation in plants. 

651. Severson, R. C, and L. P. Gough. Rehabilitation Materials From Surface Coal 
Mines in Western U.S.A. 1. Chemical Characteristics of Spoil and Replaced Cover- 
Spoil. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 2, 1983, pp. 83-102. 

This study evaluated the soil chemical characteristics of replaced cover soil and 
spoils of 11 mines located in the Fort Union (Montana and North Dakota), Powder River 
(Wyoming), and Green River (Wyoming and Colorado) coal basins. Three mines per State 
(two in Colorado) were selected based on the following criteria: (1) The area had 
been rehabilitated in the past 3 to 5 years, (2) cover soil had been used in the re- 
habilitation process, and (3) a wheatgrass-legume had been used in the seeding mix- 
ture. The specific objectives of the study were to (1) document the expected ranges 
in the soil chemical characteristics found at the mines, (2) assess the variability 
in the soil chemical characteristics among the mines and among the samples collected 
at a single mine, and (3) compare the soil chemical characteristics of mine land with 
those of natural soils of the areas studied (reference area). DTPA-extractable Cd, 
Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni , and Zn, organic matter, and pH were the soil parameters mea- 
sured at the 11 sites. A large amount of variability was found for measurements 
taken among mines and among the samples taken at a single mine. For example, pH 



245 

ranged from 3.9 to 8.9. These results suggest the limited value that a simple aver- 
age concentration would have for characterizing all mines or samples collected at a 
single mine. The authors suggest that an expected range in concentration is a better 
method for estimating the chemical characteristics of cover soil or spoil. The ele- 
mental concentrations of the metals analyzed for in the spoil and cover soil did not 
deviate much from the concentrations found in the natural A and C horizons of the 
area. However, minesoils (youthful) and natural soils represent different stages of 
soil development and the authors feel that the comparison between the two may be in- 
appropriate. Rapid changes in the chemical equilibrium of mine soils are expected. 

652. Shaw, N. Propagating and Outplanting Shrubs on Mine Sites. Paper in Shrub 
Establishment on Disturbed Arid and Semi-Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Laramie, WY, Dec. 
2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep., 1981, pp. 47-56. 

This article focuses on the use of bare-root stock in revegetating disturbed land. 
Seed collection procedures, nursery propagation of bare-root stock, and outplanting 
considerations are discussed. Important propagation characteristics of selected 
shrubs used in revegetation programs in the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains 
Coal Mining Regions are included. This article contains information valuable to 
planning revegetation activities where shrub species will be used. 

653. Sheets, P. J., V. V. Volk, and E. H. Gardner. Plants and Soil Reactions to 
Nickel Ore Processed Tailings. J. Environ. Qual., v. 11, No. 3, 1982, pp. 446-451. 

This article deals with greenhouse and laboratory experiments conducted to determine 
the effect of nickeliferous laterite ore tailings on plant growth and soil proper- 
ties. Chemical analysis of the tailings revealed high soluble salts, low concentra- 
tions of P and Ca, and high conductivity. Soil was amended with the tailings and 
tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) was planted in greenhouse experiments. 
Plant establishment was slow on soils with a high tailings amendment and on pure 
tailings; however, once established, growth was fairly good and matter yields were 
comparable to those of soils treated with lower tailings rates. The serpentine tail- 
ings used in the experiment was from the Riddle, OR area, where Ni and Co are recov- 
ered. Although the information is not directly related to coal mining, the methods 
used in the testwork could be applied universally. 

654. Sherman, R. M. , J. A. Kinkead, G. J. Campbell, and G. M. Alder. Irrigation 
for Reclamation of Strip Mined Lands (contract J0199088, Sherman and Sullivan, San 
Jose, CA). BuMines OFR 12-82, 1980, 127 pp; NTIS PB 82-163395. 

This report documents the results of a study that (1) investigated the environ- 
mental characteristics of coal mines in the arid and semiarid regions of the Western 
United States, (2) evaluated potential irrigation systems for use at these mines, and 
(3) identified those irrigation systems that are economically and technically feasi- 
ble. The authors recommend that the use of irrigation be temporary and limited to 
the germination and establishment of vegetative growth. A solid-set sprinkler irri- 
gation system combined the most favorable characteristics by allowing efficient and 
frequent application of small quantities of water in the reclamation process. It is 
portable and adaptable to a range of field characteristics. The results and discus- 
sion contained in this report are applicable in portions of the Rocky Mountain and 
Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

655. Sindelar, B. W. Achieving Revegetation Standards on Surface Mined Lands. 
Paper in Symposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Lands? (Billings, MT, Mar. 26- 
27, 1980). Soil Conser. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 22-1 to 22-15. 

Preliminary analyses based on revegetation studies conducted at Colstrip, MT, are 
presented. The author identifies some of the problem areas encountered in achieving 
revegetation standards. Erosion control, comparable production, and native species 



246 

dominance were not found to be problems. The most serious problem areas were found 
in achieving comparable life form composition and seasonality. Excessive litter 
buildup and lack of adequate nutrient recycling are identified as major factors lim- 
iting revegetation success at the sites studied. This article is particularly appli- 
cable to revegetation in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining region. However, the 
revegetation analysis used and the discussion of revegetation problem areas are po- 
tentially applicable in other areas. 

656. Sindelar, B. W. Establishment, Succession, and Stability of Vegetation on 
Surface Mined Lands in Eastern Montana. Three Year Project Summary (U.S. DOE con- 
tract EY-76-S-222 8 No. 3). U.S. DOE, TID-28791, July 1978, 14 pp. 

This publication is an interim report summarizing the activities, progress, major 
findings, and preliminary conclusions resulting from an ongoing long-term study of 
revegetation success near Colstrip, MT. Other interim reports, together with the 
final report, are included in this bibliography. The study examined plant succes- 
sion on revegetated plots ranging in age from to 50 years. Preliminary conclusions 
contained in this report are based on two years of field data collection. Species 
seeded, weather conditions seeded mined land. This report contains information per- 
tinent to revegetation planning in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 
However, it contains few or no hard data. Susequent reports on this study are more 
useful as references. 

657. Sindelar, B. W. Native or Introduced Species in Mined Land Reclamation? 
Paper presented at the 1982 Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, Calgary, 
Alberta, Canada, Feb. 10, 1982, 4 pp. 

The author discusses several aspects of a controversy that involves the use of na- 
tive and introduced species in mined-land reclamation. His discussion is based on 
reclamation research conducted on semiarid mined land in Montana. The beneficial as- 
pects or the problems encountered when using either type of species are the main em- 
phasis of this paper. The author feels that both native and introduced plant species 
are valuable in revegetation and have been used in range and other cultural prac- 
tices. The artificial distinction between native and introduced species should be 
disregarded in mined-land reclamation. In his conclusion the author states that the 
continental origin of a plant species is not as important as its suitability for the 
purpose at hand. 

658. Sindelar, B. W. Rate of Plant Succession on Mined Land in Montana. Pre- 
sented at the 1981 Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, Tulsa, OK, Feb. 10, 
1981; U.S. DOE Rep, DOE/EV/70003-14, 1981, 10 pp. 

The major objective of the study reported was to examine the kind and rate of plant 
succession that has occurred on revegetated mineland. The report is based on vegeta- 
tive data collected for 5 consecutive years on revegetated sites ranging in age from 
to 5 years located at or near Western Energy Co.'s Rosebud Mine at Colstrip, MT. 
Vegetation data collected during the study included plant density, foliar cover, 
phytomass yield, frequency, species diversity, floristic richness, constancy, repro- 
duction and mortality. The trend of succession was found to be toward plant communi- 
ties similar to those of adjacent native ranges. The rate of succession was less 
than that required to achieve the species diversity and plant community stability 
presently required within a 10-year bonding period. The author feels that more re- 
cent seedings could have a greater potential for success because aggressive intro- 
duced species were largely excluded from the seeding mixtures . The results and dis- 
cussions contained in this report are highly pertinent to revegetation planning and 
the design of revegetation monitoring plans in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining 
Region. 



247 

659. Sindelar, B. W. Successful Development of Vegetation on Surface Mined Land 
in Montana. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (Based on the 
Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 
1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 550-556. 

The purpose of this paper was to report successional development and plant community 
characteristics observed during the first year of a long study on sites ranging in 
age from 1 to 50 years located near Colstrip, MT. The study monitors plant cover, 
yield density, frequency, species composition, soil moisture content, soil tempera- 
ture, and weather conditions at biweekly intervals throughout the growing season from 
14 exclosures . Comparisons are made on individual sites over time as well as simul- 
taneously among sites. Preliminary analyses indicated that some early successional 
stages associated with soil formation might be bypassed in reclamation by topsoiling, 
fertilization, mulching, and seeding mixtures of plant species. Species seeded, ini- 
tial seeding success, cultural practices, and weather strongly influence plant suc- 
cession. This article is an excellent reference for those interested in studying 
plant succession on reclaimed surface mined lands in the Northern Great Plains Coal 
Mining Region. 

660. Sindelar, B. W. , and P. L. Plantenburg. Establishment, Succession, and Sta- 
bilty of Vegetation on Surface Mined Lands in Eastern Montana (U.S. DOE contract EY- 
76-5-06-2228 No. 3, MT State Univ.). Annu. Prog. Rep., July 1979, 55 pp. 

This is an annual progress report for a study initiated in 1975. The study was con- 
ducted on strip mined land in Colstrip, MT, to examine the development, stability and 
performance of plant communities established on semiarid mined land. Areas studied 
included native range, 48- to 50-year-old naturally revegetated coal spoil, and 2- to 
9-year-old seeded spoil. Density, frequency, cover, biomass, and species compositon 
data were taken on each plot. Results showed that the 50-year-old naturally revege- 
tated areas were either highly advanced or locked into lower series, depending on 
spoil texture and management practices. Success of the younger seeded communities 
were influenced by using introduced species, cover crops, and fertilization, as well 
as by weather. Problems with declining yield, limited success of native species, 
limited species diversity, and soil functioning are discussed, along with suggestions 
for improving reclamation in semiarid areas of the Western United States. 

661. Sindelar, B. W. , and P. L. Plantenberg. Establishment, Succession, and Sta- 
bility of Vegetation on Surface-Mined Lands in Eastern Montana (U.S. DOE contract DE- 
AT06-76 EV70003). Final Rep. DOE/EV/70003/17 , 1982, 33 pp. 

This study examined and documented the development, stability, and permanence of 
plant communities established on 15 different semiarid sites near Colstrip, MT. 
Thirteen sites were located on mine spoil, one on unmined native range (reference 
area) , and one on a pipeline construction site. Reclamation sites were seeded be- 
tween 1969-77, and naturally revegetated sites were abandoned in 1928 and 1930. The 
specific objectives of the study were (1) plant establishment and succession on mined 
land, (2) stability and permanence of artificial and natural communities on mined 
land, and (3) the kind and rate of concurrent soil and vegetation establishment on 
mined land. The authors found that the migration of native plants from surrounding 
plant communities was common. The most common migrants were the f orbs , which en- 
hanced species diversity. Migration of native grasses was slow. The migration or 
invasion by volunteer species onto spoil material was dependent upon the density of 
the seeded cover crops. The less dense the cover crop was, the greater was the vari- 
ety of grasses and forbs which invaded an area. The natural revegetation of spoil 
material indicates that the potential for reclamation success at Colstrip is very 
good. The results of this study are intended to enable reclamation workers to 



248 

develop a better understanding of the revegetatlon process on mined lands and the 
primary and secondary succession that occurs. 

662. Singleton, P. C. , and D. A. Barker. Soil Development and Nitrates in Mine- 
soil. Paper in Sjnnposium on Adequate Reclamation of Mined Land? (Billings, MT, Mar. 
26-27, 1980). Soil Conserv. Soc. America and WRCC-21, 1980, pp. 14-1 to 14-14. 

Chemical and physical properties of 16- and 40-year-old mine spoils from the Hanna 
Basin in south-central Wyoming were analyzed to determine the extent of pedogenesis 
over that period of time. Potassium enrichment in the upper 2 inches in both the 16- 
and 40-year-old minesoils, together with some downward movement of soluble salts, in- 
dicated incipient pedogenesis had occurred. Minesoils used in the study exhibited 
nitrate levels higher than those found in surrounding undisturbed soils. However, 
these amounts were within the range normally expected in available soils. Nitrate 
levels in the minesoils appeared to decrease with age. 

663. Skelly and Loy. A Compliance Manual: Methods for Meeting GSM Requirements. 
McGraw-Hill, 1979, 705 pp. 

This manual is designed to arm the mine planner and operator with some concepts, de- 
sign procedures, and operating techniques to help them meet the requirements of the 
1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. It includes interpretive summaries 
of most of the Federal permit requirements and performance standards. It reviews re- 
vegetation regulations in detail. Information is included on soil testing and sam- 
pling, fertilization, liming and mulching requirements. There is an extensive dis- 
cussion of species selection, including a list of Soil Conservation Service Plant 
Materials Centers. Tables of herbaceous and woody species recommended in the temper- 
ate East and Midwest as well as in arid and semiarid climates are given. Methods 
of planting and stand management are outlined. Various methods of measuring produc- 
tivity, ground cover, and the use of reference areas are given. This is an excellent 
review of revegetatlon regulations and methods of meeting them. 

664. Skogerboe, J. G. , C. R. Lee, and R. B. Sneel. Quantification of Erosion Con- 
trol and Runoff Water Quality from Pyritic Soil Restoration Demonstration Plots. Pa- 
per in 1983 Sjnnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec.2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 149-154. 

Field rainfall simulations were conducted at the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, Divide 
Section, to verify laboratory lysimeter data and to evaluate the effects of differ- 
ent soil amendments on runoff water quality from pyrite soil restoration plots. The 
soil amendments used were (1) lime, (2) lime and rock phosphate (3) lime and chicken 
manure, and (4) lime, rock phosphate, and chicken manure. Plants species used were 
Ky-31 tall fescue ( Festuca arundlnacea Schreb.), sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata 
(Dum.) G. Don), weeping lovegrass ( Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees), and pensacola 
bahiagrass ( Paspalum notatum Flugge) . Significant differences in biomass, runoff wa- 
ter quality, and erosion control were found for different combinations of soil amend- 
ments and plant species. The effects of different biomasses and plant species were 
determined using the laboratory rainfall simulation-lysimeter system. In this system 
the best erosion control was obtained from the Ky-31 tall fescue. The field simula- 
tion not only verified the lysimeter system, but measured the effects of different 
soil amendments on runoff water quality. Different soil amendments produced wide 
ranges in biomass, but the use of organic matter as a soil amendment significantly 
increased vegetation biomass and erosion control. A decrease in soil loss by 50 pet 
was observed when chicken manure was used. However, the nutrient concentrations and 
loads observed in the runoff water from chicken manure amended plots were also higher 
during the first year following application. Yearly monitoring is needed in order to 
determine if these trends will continue. 



249 

665. Slauson, W. L. , and R. T. Ward. Ecotypic Variation in Winterfat (Ceratoides 
Lanata) in Relation to Reclamation in Oil Shale Lands. Reclam, Reveg. Res., v. 1, 
No. 4, 1982, pp. 249-257. 

Ecotypic variation among populations of winterfat ( Ceratojdes lanata ) (L.) C.A. Mey.) 
was studied in a common garden established in the Piceance Basin oil shale region of 
northwestern Colorado. This study was an attempt to match the different ecotypes of 
winterfat with sites that need to be reclaimed. Attributes that differ genetically 
among populations of a species may be related to the success of a species on specific 
sites. These attributes include phenology; life form; height, leaf, and reproductive 
growth; drought adaptations; and juvenile success. Seven populations of winterfat, 
six from various environments in the Piceance Basin and one from south-central Colo- 
rado, were transplanted into an enclosed 0.25-ha common garden. Five other species 
of shrubs, two grasses, and one forb were also studied. Only the data for winterfat 
are presented in detail. The winterfat population from south-central Colorado exhib- 
ited very slow phenological progression and would not produce seeds in the oil shale 
region. A high-elevation population within the Piceance Basin was able to set seed 
in the garden but is questionable for reclamation purposes because of its small vege- 
tative growth. It is less competitive than the other five populations from the re- 
gion. The five populations were similar and had a favorable balance between phenol- 
ogical progression and plant size. The results indicate that those five populations 
of winterfat could be used interchangeably for reclamation at midelevation sites in 
the Piceance Basin oil shale region. 

666. Slick, B. M. Revegetation for Aesthetics. Paper in Trees for Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, 
pp. 75-84. 

The author discusses the aesthetic visual aspects of the landscape in the analysis, 
planning, and design of revegetation strategies for surface-mined lands. The evalu- 
ation of the visual resources involves inventory, analysis, and determination of ob- 
jectives and incorporates them into a resource planning process. Existing visual 
elements (form, line, color, and texture) of the vegetation and land form provide 
the basis for designing the visual aspects of reclamation. To assure a high-quality 
landscape, the selection, function, arrangement, and spacing should be considered. 
By applying architectural design techniques in the revegetation of surface-mined 
lands, the visual character of the mined landscape will be enhanced. 

667. Smith, D. F. Options for Evaluation of Prime Farmland Reclamation Success 
(Soil Survey Versus Crop Production as a Measure of Soil Productivity). Paper in 
1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 489-494. 

The author discusses the need for an alternative method of estimating soil productiv- 
ity based on postmining soil parameters. The paper is divided into sections which 
deal with the problems of evaluating soil productivity within Public Law 95-87 and 
the technical difficulties in regulation (soil handling methods, crop management sys- 
tems, disease or pest circumstances, and weather variability). Two soil productivity 
measurement options are presented along with the procedures needed to prove that soil 
productivity has been achieved. The author concludes that in dynamic agricultural 
systems, stringent controls cannot be regulated intelligibly. What is needed are 
estimates of soil productivity based on the knowledge of soil properties; accepted 
management practices are all that is needed where acceptable ranges in soil proper- 
ties are delineated. 

668. Smith, R. K. The Effects of Mulches and Fertilizer on Vegetation Establish- 
ment in Southwestern Wyoming. Paper in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid and 



250 

Semi-Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Laramie, WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep., 
1981, pp. 123-137. 

The study evaluated the effectiveness of seven combinations of mulch and fertilizer 
treatments in aiding seedling establishment and biomass production. Native grass hay 
mulch in a 2 t/acre application was superior to fabric mulch and nonmulch treatments 
for seedling establishment of grasses and some species of Atriplex but was detrimen- 
tal to shrub biomass production. Fertilization increased the establishment of grass 
and weedy species but not the establishment of seeded shrubs. However, individual 
weights of all species planted were increased with fertilizer applications. Fabric 
mulch reduced the establishment of winterfat ( Ceratoides lanata (L.) C.A. Mey.), did 
not affect the establishment of grasses and Atriplex , and improved the establishment 
of weed species. 

669. Smith, R. M. Update on Overburden Characteristics. Paper in 1977 Coal Con- 
vention Session Papers Set No. 3 (Am. Min. Congr. Coal Conv. , Pittsburgh, PA, May 1- 
4, 1977). Am. Min. Congr., Washington, DC, 1977, 17 pp. 

Methods of sampling and physically and chemically characterizing coal mine overburden 
are outlined in this article. The author briefly describes sampling approaches for 
soil (top 5 ft) and overburden properties that are useful for designing a mining and 
reclamation plan. These tests include methods for determining liming requirements 
and available plant nutrients. A discussion of costs for overburden sampling versus 
potential benefits completes the article. 

670. Smith, W. D. Has Anyone Noticed That Trees Are Not Being Planted Any Longer? 
Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., 
Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 53-55. 

The author discusses why trees are not being used in the reclamation of surface-mined 
lands in Ohio. The reasons are divided into technical, social, and economic. The 
technical reasons why trees have been eliminated from reclamation plans are due to 
the 1972 Ohio Surface Mining and Reclamation Law, which required mining, grading, and 
topsoiling. This has resulted in compaction, herbaceous competition, and erosion and 
survival repair work. The social aspect is the result of the approximate original 
contour grading requirement coupled with the planting of herbaceous species. The 
private landowner liked what he saw, and this had resulted in revegetation plans with 
grass cover for pasture and forage production, even on lands that had been growing 
trees prior to mining. Economically, trees have an additional expense in terms of 
(1) original planting, (2) repair plantings, and (3) delay-related expense in terms 
of compliance time and bond release. Although the social reasons will always exist, 
the author feels that both tree and herbaceous plantings are vital to successful 
reclamation. 

671. Snarski, R. R. , J. B. Fehrenbacher , and I. J. Jansen. Physical and Chemical 
Characteristics of Pre-Mine Soils and Post-Mine Soil Mixtures in Illinois. Soil Sci. 
Soc. America J., v. 45, 1981, pp. 806-812. 

The authors report an evaluation of the chemical, physical, and mineralogical proper- 
ties of the Sable soil series (Typic Haplaquoll) from west-central Illinois and the 
Darmstadt soil series (Albic Natraqualfs) from southern Illinois to determine the 
value of solum and subsolum material as plant growth media. The B2-horizon of the 
Darmstadt soil was the least suitable for plant growth. Incorporation of A-horizon 
into a mix of the top 3 m of the soil profile did not significantly enhance the chem- 
ical or physical properties of the mix without the A-horizon in the - case of either 
soil. By comparing tested and calculated soil chemical and physical values, the 
authors found that many of these parameters could be reasonably predicted for solum 
and subsolum mixtures. The information presented in this article is particularly 



251 

relevant to topsoil and rooting medivun handling and placement for reclamation of 
agricultural land in the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

672. Snyder, B. D. , and G. L. Potter. The Critical Links Between Baseline Studies 
and Development of Revegetation and Wildlife Restoration Plans. Paper in 1981 Sjmpo- 
sixim on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, 
Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 507-510. 

This general article discusses the purpose of premining baseline studies. Several 
common deficiencies are identified, and recommendations to correct them are given. A 
seven-step approach is presented which the authors believe will integrate quantita- 
tive vegetative and wildlife baseline data into products that satisfy the intended 
purpose of baseline studies. 

673. Sobek, A. A. Characterizations of Minesoils Developing in Coal Refuse. 
Abstract of paper presented at the Meeting of the American Council for Reclamation 
Research (Univ. AL, University, AL, Sept. 19-20, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, 
pp. 61-64. 

The author compares the soil properties and vegetative development of (1) a 53-year- 
old coal cleaning refuse material, (2) a 3-year-old portion of the refuse which 
had been regraded, amended to adjust pH, and covered with 30 cm of glacial till, and 
(3) an undisturbed soil near Staunton, IL. The old refuse exibited little soil de- 
velopment, lack of vegetation, low pH, and high sulfur content. The treated refuse 
had a 95-pct cover of a grass-legume mix, a higher pH level, lower sulfur, and soil 
development in the upper 30 cm due to the action of the plants . The reclaimed mine 
soil compared favorably to the undisturbed soil. 

674. Sobek, A. A., and J. E. Bogner. Using the Acid-Base Account To Predict Acid 
Potential of Coal Overburden. Paper in the Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal 
Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains (cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT 
State Univ. and U.S. GSM, Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. 
GSM, 1984, 21 pp. 

This paper evaluates methods for determining the acid-generating potential of un- 
weathered rock and sediments. The component parts comprising the acid-base account 
are reviewed. Weathering methods used to estimate the acid potential are briefly 
described. Examples are given of two coal mines in Pennsylvania and two mines in 
Wyoming to illustrate the potential problems in using these methods. The authors 
conclude that the acid-base account is still the best available technique for charac- 
terizing acid potential of coal overburden materials. The information conveyed is 
applicable nationwide. 

675. Soil Conservation Society of America. Surface Mine Reclamation: A Position 
Statement by the Soil Conservation Society of America. Supplement to the J, Soil 
Water Conserv. , v. 35, No. 6, 1980, 6 pp. 

The purpose of this statement is to provide general guidelines to be used for imple- 
menting conservation activities that are related to surface mining and reclamation. 
Nine principles are presented which the Society believes should be considered when 
policies and regulations are formulated that affect surface mining and reclamation. 
These principles are recommendations of the Society for restoring mine land to a pro- 
ductive and beneficial use. The role that the Society should play in bringing about 
the adoption and implementation of these principles is also discussed. 

676. Somme, H. Revegetation of Pipeline-Disturbed Land. Paper in Vegetative Re- 
habilitation and Equipment Workshop, 36th Annual Report (Denver, CG, Feb. 4-5, 1982). 
U.S. For. Ser. Equip. Dev. Cen. , Missoula, MT, 1982, pp. 19-20. 



252 

This article contains general information on drill seeding of land disturbed by pipe- 
line construction and surface mining. Information is presented on drill equipment 
that has been developed for both types of disturbance that allows planting of three 
different unlike seeds (medium, small dense, light fluffy) at the same time in one 
pass while also dispensing fertilizer. 

677. Sopper, W. E., L. T. Kardos, and S. N. Kerr. Revegetation of Anthracite 
Refuse Banks Treated With Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge: Phase II (BuMines 
project G0166049). Inst, for Res. on Land and Water Resources, PA State Univ., 1978, 
80 pp. 

This study was designed to evaluate the overwinter survival and second- and third- 
year growth responses of planted tree species and seeded grass and legume species on 
sludge amended anthracite refuse banks located near Scranton, PA. Tree seedling sur- 
vival was higher at lower sludge application rates, while greatest height growth was 
obtained at higher sludge application rates. Hardwood tree species were superior to 
conifers in terms of survival and growth responses. During the first growing season 
dry matter production and vegetative cover were highest for the lower sludge appli- 
cation rates. By the third year these parameters were higher for the higher appli- 
cation rates. Of the grasses and legumes tested, the best overall response was 
obtained from reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.), tall fescue ( Festuca 
arundinacea Schreb.), orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata L.), birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus 
corniculatus L.) and 'Penngrift' crownvetch ( Coronilla varia L.). The higher sludge 
rate (150 t/ha) produced the best overall herbaceous vegetation growth response. 
Water quality was not impaired by the sludge application by the third growing season. 
The results of this study are applicable to reclamation efforts in the Eastern Coal 
Mining Region. 

678. Sopper, W. E., and S. N. Kerr. Revegetation of Mined Land Using Wastewater 
Sludge. Public Works, v. Ill, No. 9, Sept. 1980, pp. 114-116. 

This article describes demonstration projects where different types of municipal sew- 
age sludge were incorporated into surface-mine reclamation and revegetation activ- 
ities. The sites of these demonstration projects were in Pennsylvania. This is a 
very good, semitechnical paper on the subject and could be useful to individuals with 
little background in the use of sewage sludge as a soil amendment, as well as acting 
as a reference for proposed reclamation activities. The information contained in the 
paper is most relevant to the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

679. Sopper, W. E., and S. N. Kerr. Revegetating Strip Mined Land with Municipal 
Sewage Sludge. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-600/52-81-182 (Project Sum- 
mary), Oct. 1981, 7 pp. 

The authors summarize sludge demonstration projects initiated on three sites that 
were representative of abandoned bituminous strip-mined land and anthracite coal ref- 
use in Pennsylvania. The types of sludge used were (1) liquid digested, (2) dewa- 
tered by centrifuge, vacuum filter, and sandbed drying, and (3) compost (sludge-cake 
mix) . Different rates of sludge were applied and the sites were seeded with a mix- 
ture of grasses and legumes. Over a 3-year period the sludge applications amelio- 
rated the harsh conditions of the test sites. Vegetative cover stabilized each site 
and has persisted and improved each year since establishment. Sludge applications 
did not cause a reduction in yield or quality of the vegetation. Sludge applications 
did increase the concentration of some metals in the vegetation, but all concentra- 
tions were below phytotoxic levels. There have been no adverse effects on the chemi- 
cal or bacteriological quality of soil water due to sludge applications. The authors 
conclude that stabilized municipal sludges can be used to revegetate bituminous 
strip-mined land and anthracite refuse banks in an environmentally safe manner with 



253 

no adverse effects on vegetation, soil, or ground water quality, and with little risk 
to animal and hioman health. 

680. Sopper, W. E., S. N. Kerr, and E. M. Seaker. The Pennsylvania Program for 
Using >funicipal Sludge for Mine Land Reclamation. Paper in 1981 Sjnnposium on Surface 
Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 283-290. 

The purpose of the article was to discuss the Pennsylvania program using munici- 
pal sewage sludge for mine land reclamation in both the anthracite and bituminous re- 
gions. Federal and State guidelines and regulations for land application of sludge 
are discussed. A series of demonstration sites were established, and the results 
indicate that stabilized municipal sewage sludge can be used to revegetate land dis- 
turbed by mining with few adverse effects on vegetation, soil, or ground water 
quality. 

681. Sopper, W. E., and E. M. Seaker. A Guide for Revegetation of Mined Land in 
Eastern United States Using Municipal Sludge. Sch. For. Res. and Inst, for Res. on 
Land and Water Res., PA State Univ., University Park, PA, Mar. 1983, 93 pp. 

This document presents discussions of pertinent State and Federal legislation, site 
investigations, vegetation selection and management, sludge analysis, sludge trans- 
portation and application methods, sludge application rates, and monitoring methods. 
An appendix containing a literature review of land reclamation projects using munici- 
pal sludge is included. The research reviewed and the discussions and recommenda- 
tions contained in this document are principally relevant to the Interior and Eastern 
Coal Mining Regions. It is highly recommended as a reference manual for reclamation 
planning in areas where municipal sludge application is an alternative. 

682. Sorenson, D. L. , D. A. Klein, W. J. Ruzzo, and L. E. Hersman. Enzjmie Ac- 
tivites in Revegetated Surface Soil Overlying Spent Paraho Process Oil Shale. J. 
Environ. Qual. , v. 10, No. 3, 1981, pp. 264-371. 

Several key microbiological parameters related to soil development and biogeochemical 
cycling processes were monitored to evaluate possible relationships between surface 
soil management and soil microbiological responses in surface soil used in covering 
Paraho retorted oil shale. Appreciable reduction in nitrogenase (acetylene reduc- 
tion), dehydrogenase, and phosphatase activities were found in surface soil of 30, 
61, and 91 cm depths placed directly over the processed shale when compared with sur- 
face soil not in contact with the processed shale. The soil had nitrogenase and 
phosphatase activities that were comparable to those of the control soil when a 30-cm 
coarse rock capillary barrier was placed between the 61-cm layer and the processed 
shale. The authors suggest, based on these field results, that better maintenance of 
microbial processes in soils placed over Paraho retorted shale during revegetation 
may be obtained by incorporating a capillary barrier in the reclaimed profile. This 
paper reports the results of a 2-year study conducted in the Piceance Basin of Colo- 
rado. The experimental methods and portions of the results are also applicable to 
surface coal mine reclamation efforts in the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains 
Coal Mining Regions . 

683. Sorensen, D. L. , W. A. Kneib, D. B. Porcella, and B. Z. Richardson. Deter- 
mining the Lime Requirement for the Blackbird Mine Spoil. J. Environ. Qual., v. 9, 
No. 1, 1980, pp. 162-166. 

The objective of this research was to develop a procedure for determining the total 
lime requirement of the copper-cobalt Blackbird Mine spoil near Salmon, ID. The ap- 
proach and methodologies used in this study have application to other mineral mine 



254 

revegetation efforts. The reason the lime requirements of a spoil are important to 
revegetation is that the production of acid from the oxidation of pyrite may prevent 
the revegetation of a spoil. A total lime requirement must be determined in order to 
control existing acidity and to prevent reacidif ication as the oxidation of pyritic 
material continues. The total lime requirement consists of the amount of ground 
limestone needed to neutralize the acidity present due to the buffering capacity 
of the soil, the acidity generated from the oxidation of sulf ide-sulfur in the fine 
highly reactive fraction of the soil, and the oxidation of sulf ide-sulfur exposed by 
weathering of larger diameter soil material. At the Blackbird Mine both the soil 
buffering capacity and potential acid production due to sulfide mineral oxidation 
contribute significantly to the lime requirement. The total lime requirement has to 
be met before revegetation can begin. Once a plant community is established and the 
respiration of roots and microorganisms begins, the concentration of oxygen in the 
soil water system available for sulfide oxidation will decrease. This would cause a 
slowing of the soil acidification process. The authors conclude that adequate lime 
application combined with revegetation will assure control of spoil pH. 

684. Sowards, W. E. Achieving an Adequate Sample Size for Vegetation Analyses. 
Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, 
& Management, ed. by E. F. Redente, W. E. Sowards, D. G. Stewards, and T. L. Ruiter 
(Western Reclamation Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range Sci. Dap., 
Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 63-71. 

The statistical formula for determining sample size used by the agencies regulating 
coal mines in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming was shown to require a larger 
sample the majority of the time than was needed to obtain acceptable precision. In a 
study conducted at the Trapper coal mine in northwest Colorado, it was shown that 
sample size was influenced by field sampling procedures and population distribution. 
A nonstatistical method of evaluating sample adequacy for herbaceous plant production 
is proposed. This method is based on graphing the running consecutive means as a 
function of sample size. Sampling adequacy was defined to be when any of 10 consecu- 
tive running means varied no more than 2.5 pet from the mean of the same 10 consecu- 
tive running means. This article provides a good reference for planning reclama- 
tion monitoring programs. While it was written with particular reference to the 
Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions, it could find applica- 
tion nationwide. 

685. Spaniol, J. A. Establishment of Black Walnut Seedlings on Topsoiled and Non- 
topsoiled Minesoils. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-Mining Productivity with Trees 
(Carbondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ. , Carbondale, IL, 1982, 
pp. 141-150. 

The results of a study of black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) growth on topsoiled and 
nontopsoiled mined land and on undisturbed soil are examined. Four hundred seedlings 
were planted on three such sites in Saline County, IL. All three sites had well- 
established vegetation on them. Seedlings were hand-planted using planting bars. 
Data on survival, shoot length, leaf length, stem diameter, and seedling height were 
taken. Roots were examined, but owing to the small amount of growth no measurements 
were taken. Contrary to results reported in some other studies, none of the sites 
were well suited for walnut growth. Data on seedling survival and top growth are 
given, as well as an excellent discussion on the rooting characteristics and growth 
found on the three sites. 

686. Spindler, D. Three Case Studies on Row Crop Production on Mined Land. Paper 
in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lex- 
ington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 493-495. 



255 

Three surface-mine sites in Fulton County, western Illinois which have been success- 
fully reclaimed to row crops (corn ( Zea mays L.) and soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) 
Merr.)) are discussed based on yield data obtained from county agricultural extension 
agents or individual farmers. The time from grading to initiation of row crops 
ranges from 1 to 16 years. Yield data indicate that each site offers the potential 
for row crop production based on a comparison between what the yield was on mined 
land and county averages for a particular year. High levels of sustained yield can 
be achieved on mined land with proper management of soil material. 

687. Sprouls, M. W. , and M. R. Guerin. Freeman United's Fidelity to the Land. 
Coal Min. Proces., v. 18, No. 5, 1981, pp. 48-54. 

This article reviews the history of coal removal, equipment use, coal processing, and 
reclamation at Freeman United Coal Mining Co. Fidelity Mine No. 11 in Perry County, 
IL. Reclamation efforts in the past have included forest plantings (Fidelity Forest 
2,200 acres), orchards, and pastureland for cattle. Bee honey has also been produced 
on Fidelity property. Current reclamation practices include replacing the topsoil 
(A horizon) over a graded B/C horizon mix which has been consolidated by a bucket- 
wheel excavator. While most of the reclamation activities at Fidelity No. 11 are now 
directed towards meeting the prime farmland requirements , experimental tree plantings 
have been established on a box cut spoil area. 

688. Stanley, M. A., G. E. Schuman, F. Rauzi, and L. I. Painter. Quality and Ele- 
ment Content of Forages Grown on Three Reclaimed Mine Sites in Wyoming and 
Montana. Rec. Rev. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, pp. 311-326. 

This study was conducted to determine the nutritional quality of forage grasses grown 
on unmined (reference area) and mined land in Wyoming and south-central Montana. 
Three sites were chosen for this study: (1) Decker Coal Co. mine near Decker, MT, 
(2) Glenrock Coal Co. mine near Glenrock, WY, and (3) Shirley Basin uranium mine near 
Medicine Bow, WY. Forage samples were clipped within a randomly placed 30.5- by 
58.4-cm metal frame and then air-dried for production estimates and element analysis. 
The plant material was analyzed for protein, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesi- 
um, aluminum, iron, sodium, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, nickel, chromium, and 
cadmium. Statistical analysis was limited to those species occurring on both sites 
at each mine. The results indicate that the forage species had higher concentrations 
of nonnutrient metals when grown on native soils than forage grown on reclaimed mine 
spoil. Of the elements analyzed, only iron was consistently higher in forage species 
grown on reclaimed sites. Mineral deficiencies rather than toxicities appear to be 
of greater concern on the reclaimed sites. Both phosphorus and protein were often 
found to be deficient in forage species, and sodium was below the requirement for 
cattle in all forage. The authors recommend mineral supplements to alleviate these 
problems on reclaimed sites. 

689. Stanton, N. L. , and D. K. Rementz. Nematode Densities on Reclaimed Sites on 
a Cold Desert Shrub-Steppe. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 3, 1982, pp. 233-241. 

This study was done to determine if there were any host species or reclamation treat- 
ment effects on nematode densities and trophic diversity at the Bridger Coal Co. mine 
in the southwestern part of the Red Desert in Sweetwater County, WY. Samples were 
taken under halogeton, shadscale, and grass species growing on four different sites: 
(1) undisturbed native vegetation (reference area), (2) native vegetation from which 
15 cm of topsoil had been removed, (3) a reclaimed area spread with topsoil removed 
from site 2, and (4) a reclaimed site which was spread with stockpiled topsoil. 
Of the four soil-plant treatments , the native undisturbed soil-vegetation supported 
the highest densities of all trophic groups of nematodes. Both the plant parasites 
and microbivores were significantly higher in the undisturbed shadscale. The four 



256 

soil-plant treatments exhibited a gradual progression from high to low nematode den- 
sities in the following order: (1) native vegetation, (2) disturbed native vegeta- 
tion with fresh topsoil, (3) under shadscale, disturbed native vegetation with fresh 
topsoil, (4) under halogeton and disturbed vegetation with stockpiled soil replace- 
ment, and (5) under halogeton. On all sites, the native shrub, shadscale Atriplex 
conf ertifolia (Torr. & Frem.) S. Wats.), supported the highest densities, while the 
introduced annual, halogeton Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C.A. Mey) , supported the 
lowest. The results indicate that immediate topsoil replacement provides a better 
habitat for the nematode component of the microfauna. It may also be possible to use 
nematodes as indicators of the extent of disturbance and the successional status of 
the soil. 

690. Stark, N. A Tree For All Seasons. Western Wildlands, v. 7, No. 3, 1981, 
pp. 18-21. 

The author discusses the factors that limit the growth of ponderosa pine (Pinus 
ponderosa Laws.) on eastern Montana coal spoils. If ponderosa pine are to be grown 
on regraded minesoils, it is essential to know how minesoils and native forest soils 
differ physically and chemically. The author discusses how ponderosa pine, an acid- 
loving species, has adapted to the alkaline soil of eastern Montana. Two possible 
reasons are given: (1) The ponderosa pine growing in eastern Montana is an ecotype 
or subpopulation adapted to calcareous soils, and (2) it is close to its limit of 
tolerance for alkaline conditions. The remainder of the paper is devoted to a 
discussion of the physical and chemical properties of eastern Montana minesoils. The 
author concludes that if trees are to be grown on regraded minesoils, they will have 
to be selected for the physical and chemical characteristics of the minesoil. 

691. Starks, T. L. Algal Succession as an Edaphic Factor of Surface Mined Lands. 
Suppl. J. Phycology, v. 14, 1978, p. 20. 

This study was done to determine algal species, chlorophyll "a", and major cations, 
anions, and trace elements on surface mined land in North Dakota. Soil enrichment 
cultures identified the following species: 9 Chlorophyta , 13 Cyanophyta , 3 Bacil- 
lariophyta , and 1 Xanthophyta . Trend analysis showed that time had a positive corre- 
lation with the number of species and chlorophyll "a" content. An additional analy- 
sis showed 9 new species had appeared. Algal succession indicates that a favorable 
change in soil chemistry had occurred. The author concludes that the presence of 
algae may be used as an indicator of improving soil conditions for revegetation. 

692. Starks, T. L. , and L. E. Shubert. Algal Colonization on a Reclaimed Surface- 
Mined Area in Western North Dakota. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
Volume Two (Based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand 
Forks, ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1979, pp. 652-660. 

The purpose of this study was to identify and quantify the soil algae present on 
an experimental revegetation test site north of Beulah in Mercer County, ND, as well 
as to describe their succession and relationships to the abiotic components of the 
soil. Several amendments to the spoil material were tested for their effect on plant 
growth. These treatments included leonardite, scoria, fertilizer, and combinations 
of these treatments. Algal populations were monitored over three growing seasons 
(1975-77). Algal variety increased from year to year regardless of the type of soil 
amendment. The number of algal species, chlorophyll "a", and pharophytin "a" content 
of the spoil were compared to the soil amendments and selected soil nutrients over 
time in a trend analysis. Sodium, manganese, and potassium contents of the spoil, as 
well as time, were significantly correlated to the algal parameters measured. This 
article provides a unique perspective of the ecological processes occurring during 
surface mine reclamation. The information conveyed is primarily pertinent to the 
Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 



257 

693. Starnes , L. B. , J. B. Maddox, and T. G. Zarger, Effects of Remedial Reclama- 
tion Treatments on Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems — A Progress Report. Paper in 
Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States (WV 
Univ., Morgantown, WV, Dec. 3-6, 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. , FWS/OBS-78/81 , 
1978, pp. 276-285. 

This research involved remedial treatments to a 162-hectare site in Campbell County, 
TN, after previous revegetation attempts had failed. Treatments to the area included 
liming, disking, seeding grasses and legumes, and planting trees and shrubs. 
Increases in percent ground cover and number of woody stems per hectare resulted 
from the treatments. Owing to the vegetative cover, the water quality of the 2,800 
hectare-ha Ollis Creek Watershed, which the site is a part of, was improved. There 
were decreases in the total acidity, turbidity, sulfates, and certain metals within 
the watershed. Major responses by wildlife to the improved water quality were lim- 
ited to aquatic invertebrates, where both numbers of individuals and taxa increased. 

694. Steele, B. B., and C. Val Grant. Topographic Diversity and Islands of Natu- 
ral Vegetation: Aids in Re-Establishing Bird and Mammal Communities on Reclaimed 
Mines. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, pp. 367-381. 

The purpose of this study was to document how diverse topographic features on re- 
claimed mines increase species richness, species diversity, and abundance of birds 
and mammals. Bird and mammal populations were sampled at two locations: the McKin- 
ley Mine near Gallup, NM, and the Edna Mine near Oak Creek, CO. At the McKinley 
Mine, manmade cliffs and areas of undisturbed pinon-juniper contributed significantly 
to bird populations on reclaimed areas; 38 species were seen. These areas contrib- 
uted 22 pet of bird species diversity and 35 pet of the bird species richness mea- 
sured on reclaimed areas. At the Edna Mine, species diversity, richness or abundance 
of birds , small mammals , and large animals were higher on diverse unreclaimed mine 
spoil than on reclaimed spoil; 46 species of birds were seen, compared with only 
15 on reclaimed spoils. Diversity and richness were only 45 pet and 28 pet, respec- 
tively, of those on unreclaimed spoils. Mean bird abundancy was four times higher on 
unreclaimed areas than on reclaimed areas. Abundance and species richness of larger 
mammals were also higher on unreclaimed spoils at the Edna Mine. The diverse topog- 
raphy of unreclaimed spoils has resulted in diverse vegetation, which affected the 
bird populations at both mine sites, while mammals were affected by the terrain. The 
unreclaimed spoils provide a better habitat for birds and mammals than reclaimed 
spoils, but the authors do not recommend that mines be left unreclaimed. They do 
recommend that some steep slopes , gullies , depressions , and islands of natural vege- 
tation be left. This would result in less bulldozing time, and the cost of reclama- 
tion would be lower. At the same time this would create habitats that are favorable 
for bird and mammal populations. 

695. Stevens, R. Techniques for Planting Shrubs on Wildland Disturbances. Paper 
in Shrub Establishment on Disturbed Arid and Semi-Arid Land (Proc. Symp., Laramie, 
WY, Dec. 2-3, 1980). WY Game and Fish Dep., 1981, pp. 29-36. 

The author discusses direct-seeding and transplanting techniques for establishing 
shrubs on disturbed areas. Important factors that must be considered in applying 
either technique are presented. Species particularly well adapted for each method 
are listed. The information presented is valuable to revegetation efforts in por- 
tions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

696. Steward, D. G. The Effect of Soil Horizon Combination on the Production of 
Blue Grama and Western Wheatgrass. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hy- 
drology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 265-269. 



258 

A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate three soil horizons (A, B, and C) and 
unconsolidated overburden material (D) for their suitability as plant growth materi- 
al. The soil materials used for this study were taken from the Powder River Basin in 
northeastern Wyoming and consisted of three soil series: Decolney, Fort Collins, and 
Olney soils. The suitability of the soils as plant growth material was evaluated 
using blue grama ( Bouteloua gracilis )(H.B.K.) Lag.) and western wheatgrass ( Agropyron 
smithii Rydb.). The soil combinations used were (1) all horizons combined, (2) A + B 
+ C horizons combined, (3) C horizon; (4) C + D horizon combined, and (5) D horizon. 
Each treatment was amended with 1.51 lb/acre active N, 1.44 lb/acre active P, and 
1.35 lb/acre active K. In general, blue grama established more readily and grew more 
rapidly than western wheatgrass. The most productive soil, averaged over all horizon 
combinations, was the Olney series. The least productive soil was the Fort Collins 
series. The A + B horizon was the most productive, while the C horizon was the least 
productive. The A + B + C combination was less productive than the A + B, while the 
C + D combination was a little more productive than either the C or D alone. Approx- 
imately 52 pet of the variation in blue grama biomass can be attributed to effects of 
soil horizon combination; pH and clay content explained the greatest amount of vari- 
ation. Of the variation in western wheatgrass biomass, 31 pet was explained by soil 
horizon combination; pH, clay, and organic matter were the most significant vari- 
ables. The author concluded that the best possible plant growth material can be ob- 
tained by paying attention to changes in soil texture, pH, and calcium carbonate 
accumulation . 

697. Steward, D. G. Using a Similarity Index To Evaluate Revegetation Success. 
Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Revegetation, 
& Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., Range 
Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 75-83. 

The Motyka Index of Similarity (also known as the Bray and Curtis Index of Similar- 
ity) is reviewed as a means of evaluating revegetation success. Examples are used to 
illustrate how the index may be used and statistically evaluated. The success of re- 
vegetation was found to be best evaluated at the growth form level, using cover and 
production as response variables. The similarity index was found to be superior to 
the Shannon-Wiener Index of Diversity in evaluating revegetation success. This arti- 
cle provides an excellent reference for designing reclamation monitoring programs. 
It was written with special reference to the Western United States. However, the 
method described in this article is applicable nationwide. 

698. Stiller, D. M. , G. L. Zimpfer, and M. Bishop. Application of Geomorphic 
Principles to Surface Mine Reclamation in the Semiarid West. J. Soil Water Conserv. , 
V. 35, No. 6, 1980, pp. 274-277. 

The authors discuss the need for a more rigorous application of geomorphic and hydro- 
logic concepts in the design of postmining topography in the semiarid West. These 
concepts should provide a valuable addition to erosion control and enhance revegeta- 
tion efforts. Several reclamation problems are discussed, and attention is given to 
minimizing erosion through topographic design that has incorporated geomorphic and 
hydrologic concepts. The authors concluded that successful reclamation in the semi- 
arid West depends on precise planning of the reclaimed surface and the integration of 
the reclaimed surface and drainage network into the surrounding landscape. 

699. Stout, W. L. , H. A. Menser, 0. L. Bennett, and W. M. Winant. Cover Estab- 
lish: lent on an Acid Mine Using Composted Garbage Mulch and Fluidized Bed Combustion 
Residue. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. 203-211. 

This study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of fluidized-bed combus- 
tion residue (FBCR) , alone and in combination with composted garbage mulch (garbage 



259 

two rates of agricultural lime and FBCR alone and in combination with two rates of 
garbage mulch. All plots were seeded with 'Ky-31' tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea 
Schreb.) at a rate of 90 kg/ha. Fertilizer was applied during the second season at 
the rate of 560 kg/ha of 10-10-10. Fertilization was delayed in order to observe the 
contribution of plant nutrients by the mulch and FBCR. Plant materials were har- 
vested for yield determinations and nutrient analyses. Soil samples were also ana- 
lyzed for macronutrients , micronutrients , and the presence of heavy metals. Prior to 
fertilization, only the plots with composted garbage mulch had a satisfactory yield. 
Cover was improved with fertilization, but the cover on control plots and plots with 
only lime and FBCR was still inadequate. Plots which had composted garbage mulch 
with or without lime or FBCR had adequate vegetative cover. Yields were also larger 
on plots treated with composted garbage mulch owing to higher nutrient inputs. 
Yields on plots treated with lime or FBCR alone were not significantly different than 
those on control plots. However, plant analyses indicated that lead levels exceeded 
the safe level in plant materials in several treatments that received composted gar- 
bage mulch. The authors conclude that composted garbage mulch and FBCR are useful 
materials in establishing vegetative cover on acid mine soils; it is also a means of 
disposing of these waste materials. 

700. Streeter, R. G. Forging the Missing Link in the Environmental Management 
Chain. Paper in 1977 Mining Yearbook. CO Min. Assoc, 1977, pp. 104-108. 

The author presents his opinions on the need for setting environmental goals at State 
and regional levels. Several specific examples of the effects that such comprehen- 
sive planning would have had on site-specific action are discussed. The principal 
aim is to suggest a general framework within which State and Federal reclamation 
guidelines could be applied. This article is one of the better papers written during 
this period dealing with the effects of the relatively new State and Federal laws 
regulating surface mining and reclamation. The article is pertinent to the Northern 
Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Regions and primarily deals with fish and 
wildlife concerns. 

701. Streeter, R. G. , R. T. Moore, J. J. Skinner, S. G. Martin, T. L. Terrel, 
W. D. Klimstra, J. Tate, Jr., and M. J. Nolde. Energy Mining Impacts and Wildlife 
Management: Which Way to Turn. Paper in Transactions of the 44th North American 
Wildlife and Natural Resource Conference. Wildlife Manag. Inst., Washington, DC, 
1979, pp. 26-65. 

This paper is a good, succinct evaluation of the activities associated with mining. 
Mining's major impacts are treated in sufficient detail to allow preliminary identi- 
fication and ranking of their effect on wildlife resources. The presented analysis 
procedure uses a matrix approach which facilitates the assessment of the severity of 
the anticipated impacts. The long-term impacts of reclamation are considered. The 
mechanisms of the impacts on wildlife are reviewed. The information conveyed is a 
synthesis of a review of pertinent literature and the experience of the authors. The 
impacts of postmining land use on wildlife are stressed. The discussions are well 
referenced to the existing Federal regulations and potential local input as they 
affect wildlife management options on reclaimed mineland. The discussions are not 
limited to coal mining or a specific region of the United States. Many topics perti- 
nent to this evaluation process are considered in a cursory manner, generally refer- 
enced with regard to their effect on postmining land use options and consequent di- 
rect and indirect effects on wildlife. 

702. Stringer, J. W. , and S. B. Carpenter. Energy Content of Black Locust Growing 
on Surface Mined Land. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedi- 
mentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1982, pp. 243-248. 



260 

This study was conducted to determine the total energy content and the usable energy 
content of the aboveground portion of black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.). Bio- 
mass sample plots were established in 84 black locust stands, ranging in age from 
2 to 10 years, located in eastern Kentucky. The aboveground portion of each tree 
within a 10 m^-plot was harvested and divided into four parts (leaves, current 
growth, wood, and bark), weighed, dried, and reweighed. Heat of combustion values of 
each plant part were determined using a Parr 1241 adiabatic oxygen bomb calorimeter. 
Heat content was determined using heat of combustion and biomass data. The specific 
gravity of the wood was also calculated. The total biomass ranged from 4,364.9 kg/ha 
for 2-year-old stands to 34,878.2 kg/ha for 9-year-old stands. Average whole-tree 
heats of combustion ranged from 8,600 Btu/lb for 2-year-old stands to 8,539 Btu/lb 
for 10-year-old stands. The average energy content of 2-year-old stands was less 
than that of 10-year-old stands, 8,357 and 8,440 Btu/lb, respectively. Two-year-old 
stands contained the lowest total enei;gy contents, averaging 82.5 and 50.9 MBtu/ha 
for total aboveground and woody biomass, respectively. Nine-year-old stands had the 
highest amount of energy upon combustion, 655.3 and 576.9 MBtu/ha, for aboveground 
and woody biomass, respectively. Nine-year-old stands also had the highest usable 
heat content for whole-tree biomass, 483.4 MBtu/ha and woody biomass, 432.8 MBtu/ha. 
Annual usable energy contents for the 9-year-old stands were the highest for total 
and woody biomass, 53.7 and 48.1 MBtu/ha, respectively. This study shows the advan- 
tages of using black locust, growing on surface-mined land, as a fuel source. 

703. Strock, G. N. Revegetation of Surface Mined Lands in Pennsylvania. Paper in 
Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., Gen. Tech. 
Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 57-59. 

The author discusses the reforestation of surface-mined lands in Pennsylvania. From 
1958 to 1973 there was a 9.7 pet increase in forested acreage while pastureland and 
cropland acreage decreased 26.6 and 15.7 pet, respectively. From 1977 to 1980 be- 
tween 2 million to 2.5 million tree seedlings were planted on surface-mined land per 
year. The accepted revegetation practice for active surface operations is to estab- 
lish a herbaceous cover for soil stabilization, erosion control, and sedimentation 
control. If tree and shrub species are a part of the revegetation plan, they are 
planted in combination with the herbaceous vegetation. The author recommends that 
low-growing, nonaggressive herbaceous species be used when trees are planted at the 
same time. Birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.) is a legume species that is 
coimnonly planted in combination with trees. A list of the tree species that are com- 
monly planted on surface-mined land in Pennsylvania is given. 

704. Stucky, D. J., J. H. Bauer, and T. C. Lindsey. Restoration of Acid 
Mine Spoils With Sewage Sludge: I. Revegetation. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 3, 1980, 
pp. 129-139. 

The authors' purpose was to study several critical factors that are necessary to pro- 
vide guidelines for further applications of large quantities of sewage sludge to 
acidic strip mine spoil. The site of this study was the Palzo tract in southern 
Illinois. The objectives of this study were to determine differences among plants in 
their ability to (1) become established and tolerate adverse parameters such as pH 
and soluble salts, and (2) their ability to exclude or accumulate metals. Reed ca- 
narygrass ( Phalaris arundinacea L.), switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L.), and orchard- 
grass ( Dactylis glomerata L.) were the most successfully established species after 
three growing seasons. From the time of initial planting to the end of the third 
growing season, reed canarygrass, switchgrass, and orchardgrass increased their per- 
cent aerial cover from 27 to 94, 14.5 to 73, and 36.5 to 63.5 pet, respectively. 
Each species had a minimum pH which their roots would tolerate; for reed canarygrass 
it was 3.5, for switchgrass it was 3.7, and for orchardgrass it was 4.2. All three 
species were also able to establish themselves in the presence of potentially toxic 



261 

quantities of cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, and zinc. For example, after 
one growing season the cadmium contents In the tops of reed canarygrass swltchgrass, 
and orchardgrass were 6.5, 10, and 2.8 ppm, respectively. However, by the end of the 
third growing season all elements In the plant tops were within ranges that are not 
considered to be toxic or harmful. In general, when the pH was greater than 5.5, 
quantities of metals In the plants were lower than when the mean pH was less than 
5.5. The authors conclude with a list of suggested guidelines for future applica- 
tions of sewage sludge on acidic mine spoils. 

705. Stucky, D. J., and T. C. Llndsey. Effect of Soil Compaction on Growth 
and Yield of Soybeans Grown In a Greenhouse on Several Reconstructed Soil Profiles 
From Prime Farmland In Southern Illinois. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 4, 1982, 
pp. 297-309. 

This greenhouse study evaluated the effect of soil compaction on the ontogeny and 
yield of soybeans ( Glycine max (L.) Merr. cultlvar Williams) on reconstructed prime 
farmland soil horizons. A Proctor test was used to gain Information that might help 
maximize the yield of prime farmland soils reconstructed after surface mining. Soil 
materials used in this study were collected from two potential surface-mine sites in 
Perry and Jackson Counties in southern Illinois. Soil from each horizon (A, B, C, 
and C2) plus a 1:3 ratio mixture of B:Ci and B:C2 horizons were fertilized and com- 
pacted into pots at three different bulk densities. The bulk densities were (1) not 
compacted (1.2 g/cm^), (2) moderately compacted (1.4 g/cm-'), and (3) severely com- 
pacted (1.6 g/cm^). The results Indicate that yields decrease as soil compaction in- 
creases. In all cases plants grown in soil compacted to 1.4 g/cm^ outylelded plants 
grown in the severely compacted soil (1.6 g/cm^). By blending the B and C horizon 
material at a 1:3 ratio, significantly higher plant yields were obtained when com- 
pared to plants grown in B-horizon soil material. Yields of plants grown in the 
C-horizon were not significantly different than yields obtained from plants grown in 
the A-horizon. Potentially, the most useful Information derived from the Proctor 
test was the determination of the soil moisture percent at which soils are least sus- 
ceptible to compaction. The Proctor test can also be used to determine the effect of 
blending horizons or adding organic matter on the compactability of reconstructed 
mine soil. 

706. Stucky, D. J., and A. L. Zoeller. Restoration of Acidic Mine Spoils With 
Sewage Sludge: II. Measurement of Solids Applied. Reclam. Rev., v. 3, No. 3, 1980, 
pp. 141-147. 

A greenhouse study was conducted at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, IL, 
prior to the reclamation of an acid mine spoil. The objectives of the study were to 
(1) identify the critical soil parameters, (2) provide information so an equation 
could be computed to determine approximate quantities of sewage sludge needed to in- 
corporate into the spoils to achieve the desired spoil pH, and (3) provide informa- 
tion for an equation so, following sludge incorporation, measured quantities of cri- 
tical parameters could determine the approximate amounts actually applied in the soil 
profile. Sewage sludge, at equivalent rates of 0, 224, 336, and 448 dry t/ha, was 
mixed with acidic mine spoil and placed in pots in the greenhouse. Orchardgrass 
( Dactylls glomerata L.) was then seeded into the pots 48 h after incorporation of the 
sludge. Orchardgrass was the species chosen because it had been successfully estab- 
lished at the Palzo tract in southern Illinois. Parameters measured were pH, organic 
matter, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity, and yield. The parameters 
were measured at the time of seeding (48 h after sludge incorporation) and 5 months 
after planting. The data collected at the time of planting had the greater predict- 
ability value. Spoil pH was the most Important parameter measured in order to pre- 
dict the rate of applied sewage sludge. Additional accuracy was obtained by includ- 
ing the cation exchange capacity in the equation. The authors conclude that soil 



262 

properties can be used to estimate the amount of sewage sludge solids that are needed 
to reclaim acid mine spoils and to estimate the quantities incorporated. 

707. Sundin, R. E. History of Reclamation in Wyoming. Paper in Proceedings of 
the 75th Regular Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Coal Mining Institute (Vail, CO, June 
24, 1979). Rocky Mount. Coal Min. Inst., Denver, CO, 1979, pp. 77-79. 

A brief historical sketch of reclamation efforts in Wyoming since 1965 is provided. 
A discussion of the intent and effects of the Open Cut Mine Reclamation Act of 1969, 
a Wyoming State reclamation regulation, and its further amended version in 1973, is 
included. The author describes three common violations of the state reclamation 
statutes. This article provides an interesting historical perspective of reclamation 
efforts in the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

708. Sundstrom, F., and R. Morse. Legume Inoculation Following Seedling Estab- 
lishment in Mine Soils. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedi- 
mentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1982, pp. 13-19. 

The objectives of this study were to determine the influence of nitrogen avail- 
ability and time of inoculation on nodulation, N2 fixation, and growth of snap bean 
( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in 4-year-old mine soil from Wise County, VA. Treatments 
used were (1) fertilization and inoculation at planting, (2) fertilization at plant- 
ing and inoculation delayed 21 days, (3) fertilization at planting and no inocula- 
tion, (4) inoculation at planting and fertilization delayed 21 days, and (5) appro- 
priate controls. Fertilizer rates were 0, 25, 50, and 100 kg/ha. All treatments 
were duplicated in a growth chamber study and a field study. Nitrogen fixation was 
measured by nitrogenase activity using the acetylene reduction method. At matura- 
tion both studies were terminated, and plant shoot, root, and nodule dry weights were 
determined along with percent total nitrogen in the roots and shoots. The nitrogen 
fixation responses to nitrogen fertilization and treatment were found to be complex 
and interrelated. However, the highest amount of nodule mass and gaseous nitrogen 
fixed occurred at a fertilization rate of 25 kg/ha nitrogen. No significant differ- 
ences were found between nitrogen fertilizer rate and percent nitrogen in the shoots 
and roots . This indicates that the plants were receiving adequate nitrogen regard- 
less of the nitrogen source (fertilizer or fixed) or the fertilization rate. 

709. Swatzyna, R. J. Kentucky's Nursery Situation. Paper in Trees for Reclama- 
tion (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. , Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, 
pp. 25-26. 

The author discusses the production of nursery-grown tree and shrub species for use 
on surface-mined land in Kentucky. Currently, 12.5 million seedlings are produced 
annually and consist of 20 different species. Production consists of 60 pet hard- 
woods and shrubs and 40 pet pine. Five species are grown primarily for reclamation 
purposes. These species are European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaetrn.), 
black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia L.), bicolor lespedeza ( Lespedeza bicolor Turcz.), 
autxjmn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), and Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) 
A study is being conducted in order to evaluate 14 different woody species for recla- 
mation purposes. They include species that have been raised by nurseries in the past 
but are not generally available for reclamation purposes. If the test plantings are 
successful, these species will be made available for reclamation. A tree improvement 
program is also being conducted with three species that are used for reclamation. 
These species are European black alder, Virginia pine, and black locust. 

710. Swiegard, R. J., and R. V. Ramani. Impact of Public Policy on Surface Mine 
Planning and Design in the United States. J. Mines, Metals, and Fuels, v. 30, No. 6, 
1982, pp. 274-283. 



263 

This article identifies the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 
1977 and subsequent regulations based on that act as the most significant direct 
force in defining public policy for surface mining in recent years. The article ex- 
amines the direct and indirect impacts of this legislation from a national perspec- 
tive. Good background information is provided for individuals with little or no 
knowledge of surface coal mining and mineland reclamation in the United States. 

711. Tackett, E. M. , and D. H. Graves. Evaluation of Direct-Seeding of Tree Spe- 
cies on Surface Mine Spoil After Five Years. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Min- 
ing, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, pp. 437-441. 

The authors present the 5-year results of a study designed to evaluate the effects 
of aspect, mulch, fertilization, and competition of five tree species direct-seeded 
on mine spoil near Jackson, KY. Three large-seeded tree species, northern red oak 
( Quercus rubra L.), pin oak ( Quercus palustris Muenchh.), and bur oak ( Quercus macro- 
carpa Michx.), and one small-seeded species Paulownia ( Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) 
Steud.) were spot-seeded, and European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) was 
broadcast-seeded. The treatments consisted of five mulch treatments (a control, hy- 
dromulch, shredded bark, shredded bark plus chicken manure, and "real earth" - a com- 
posted municipal waste and sewage sludge mixture), three fertilizer treatments (0, 
200, and 400 lb/acre of 16-32-8), and a 1:1 mixture of yellow sweetclover ( Melilotus 
officinalis Lan.) and tetrablend ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.) broadcast-seeded at ei- 
ther 0, 10, or 20 lb/acre. First-year growth was not affected by the treatment vari- 
ables tested. However, after 5 years the variation in percent stocking (survival) 
was a function of aspect and competition. Mulching and fertilization had no signifi- 
cant effects on the stocking rates. Competition from ground cover plants had a sig- 
nificant effect on the growth of direct-seeded trees after- 5 years. Grass and legume 
competition resulted in a 35-pct reduction in the average height growth of the seeded 
species. The results of this study indicate that direct-seeding of tree species on 
mine spoil can be successful if the proper materials and techniques are used. 

712. Taki, S. K. , M. H. Rowell, W. B. McGill, and M. Nyborg. Reclamation and Veg- 
etation of Surface Mined Areas in the Athabasca Tar Sands. (Syncrude Canada, Ltd., 
contract 5-39619, v. 12, Dep. Soil Sci., Univ. Alberta). Syncrude Canada Ltd., Ed- 
munton, Alberta, Environ. Res. Monograph 1977-1, 1977, 170 pp. 

A growth chamber study was used to determine the performance of a number of native 
and cultivated plant species on oil sand mining waste materials under different 
salinity, soil reaction, fertility, soil mix, and oil conditions. An accompanying 
field trial was conducted on a vegetated area of a tailings pond dike to determine 
responses of the established vegetative cover to different fertility levels, and to 
determine the fate of added fertilizer nutrients. Both studies were conducted over a 
1-year period. It is recommended that the oil-sand-bearing materials be mixed with 
fertilizer and a good soil material and left for a growing season before seeding, at 
which time fertilizers should again be applied. Where salinity levels are extreme, 
normal chemical means of reclaiming saline soils prior to planting should be applied. 
Where salinity is low to moderate , tolerant plant species could be seeded without 
chemical reclamation. Acidification is recommended in areas of high pH (about 10). 
This treatment should be accompanied by correction of salinity problems where appro- 
priate. Legumes can be grown successfully if the soil mix is near neutral; the seeds 
are inoculated with proper inoculants , and plant nutrients are provided in the soil 
mix. Balanced stands of legumes and grasses may be obtained by using seeding mix- 
tures consisting of species of grasses and legumes which would compete on an equal 
basis , or by using a larger percentage of legume seeds in the seeding mixture and by 
ensuring soil conditions favoring legumes in competition with grasses. Initial fer- 
tilizer rates should not be less than 80 lb N, 40 lb P, and 80 lb K per acre per year 



264 



after the establishment of vegetation. A seedbed allowing for deeper root penetra- 
tion is of high priortiy in establishing greater slope stability. Cultivated species 
tested grew at least as well as the native species in the short-term experiments. An 
important consideration in revegetation is the .capacity of soils to withstand acidi- 
fication. Tailings sand and both lean and heavy oil sands are extremely poorly buf- 
fered against acidity. Under the conditions likely to prevail near an extraction 
plant , they could be expected to be acidified to levels at which plant growth would 
be eliminated with 10 years of exposure. The buffering capacity of this material 
could be increased to acceptable levels by mixing with peat and overburden materials. 
No material tested was devoid of microbial activity. High populations of sulfate- 
reducing organisms were reported. Tailings materials and overburdens were shown 
to have a limited ability to supply available forms of nitrogen and phosphorus to 
plants. Natural levels of atmospheric nitrogen fixation by free-living microorga- 
nisms were low. The results reported in this publication are to some extent specific 
for reclamation of oil sand mining waste materials. However, they could find appli- 
cation, under some circumstances, in planning reclamation efforts for other materials 
possessing similar properties. The research reported was conducted 22 miles north of 
Fort McMurray, Alberta. 

713. Taylor, S. L. , M. McDonnell, and W. A. Niering. Recycled Industrial Wastes 
Aid Revegetation. Compost Science/Land Util., v. 21, No. 3, 1980, pp. 18-20. 

The authors evaluated the potential value of recycled mycelium, an industrial residue 
produced from the fermentation processes of organic acids and antibiotics , in reha- 
bilitating an unused gravel pit in Ledyard, CT. The experimental treatments were 
(1) fresh citric acid mycelium, (2) composted mycelium, (3) fresh mycelium mixed with 
topsoil, (4) sandy loam topsoil only, and (5) untreated control plots. The mycelium 
and mycelium-topsoil mixtures were spread by hand to a depth of 5 to 8 cm and covered 
any existing herbaceous plants. At the end of two growing seasons, percent cover of 
plants was estimated on all plots. The results indicate that plant cover, partic- 
ularly annual species , increased in plots treated with mycelial residues when com- 
pared with topsoil-treated and control areas. The greatest increase in plant cover 
occurred on composted mycelium plots. Approximately 90 pet of the ground was covered 
with newly established plants by the end of two growing seasons. The authors con- 
clude that the use of mycelial residues in the revegetation of sparsely vegetated or 
unvegetated, well-drained, nutrient-poor, gravelly sites appears to be a sound land- 
use practice. The application of mycelial residues hastens the natural revegetation 
process. 

714. Thames, J. L. , and T. R. Verma. Reclamation on the Black Mesa of Arizona. 
Min. Congr. J., v. 63, No. 9, 1977, pp. 42-46. 

This article discusses reclamation efforts on the Black Mesa of Arizona. Most of the 
article is concerned with characterizing the climate, natural vegetation, soil, ani- 
mal life, and hydrology of the area. Very little information is presented on the ac- 
tual reclamation practices used by Peabody Coal in the area. However, general infor- 
mation is given on grading practices used by Peabody Coal on the Black Mesa. 

715. Thompson, D. A. Regeneration Lessons From Ontario's Clay Belt Forests. 
Scottish Forestry, v. 34, No. 3, 1980, pp. 173-177. 

The author describes some of the dangers associated with separating harvesting from 
silviculture in the Clay Belt of Ontario. A general description is given of the 
soils, forests, climate, management, and silvicultural techniques used in the area. 
Of particular interest is the increase in site deterioration due to the use of heavy 
harvesting equipment. Evidence is presented that in Ontario the use of heavy skid- 
ders has resulted in negligible stocking by natural regeneration on poor sites. To 
alleviate some of the management problems and achieve successful regeneration, the 



265 

author feels that attention must be given to plant handling, storage, site prepara- 
tion, and planting during restocking. 

716. Thornburg, A. A. Plant Materials for Use on Surface-Mined Lands in Arid and 
Semiarid Regions. U.S. Soil Conserv. Ser., SCS-TP-157, EPA-600/ 7-79-1 34, Jan. 1982, 
88 pp. 

This publication describes the characteristics, areas of adaptation, and performance 
of numerous herbaceous and woody plant species that have been found to have potential 
for use in revegetating surface mineland in the arid and semiarid regions of the 
United States. Species selection, use, establishment, availability, and management 
techniques are discussed for a large number of native and introduced grasses, f orbs , 
and woody plants. Sources of more specific information are suggested. This is an 
excellent publication and highly recommended as a reference manual to individuals 
considering potential species composition for surface mine revegetation. 

717. Thuesen, C. A. The Aesthetics of Reclamation. Western Wildlands , v. 7, No. 
3, 1981, pp. 22-25. 

The author discusses the use of visual resource management in surface-mine reclama- 
tion. This approach integrates esthetic considerations into resource utilization 
planning. Visual contrasts are defined and quantified according to landscape vari- 
ables of form, line, color, and texture as determined from selected viewpoints. The 
process results in definition or contrast rating units or visible areas having homo- 
geneous vegetative, geologic, microclimatic, and soil patterns. By using visual 
resource management it is possible to reconmend how contour grading and hydrology; 
placement, massing, and shape of vegetation; appropriate vegetation color and tex- 
ture; and the location and appearance of manmade structures can be most effectively 
mixed to contribute to harmonious reclamation. 

718. Tiedmann, A. R. , and C. H. Driver. Snow Eriogonum: A Native Halfshrub To 
Revegetate Winter Game Ranges. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 2, No. 1, 1983, pp. 31-39. 

The objectives of this study were to (1) measure the frequency and cover of snow 
eriogonum (Eriogonum niveum Dougl. ex Benth.) relative to associated species in two 
habitats of northcentral Washington, (2) determine seed characteristics and viabil- 
ity, (3) evaluate response to nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur fertiliza- 
tion, and (4) determine the ability of snow eriogonum to develop from direct-seeding. 
This study was divided into three parts: a growth chamber study, which was used to 
determine seed viability; a greenhouse pot study, which assessed response to fertili- 
zation; and a field study, which assessed coverage and success of direct seeding. 
Snow eriogonum is a pioneer plant on disturbed sites in north-central Washington. 
This study indicated that on such sites , snow eriogonum provides an average foliar 
coverage of 8.9 pet and comprises approximately one-sixth of the total vegetal cover. 
Germination tests revealed that the viability of the seed is within acceptable lim- 
its: 52 to 72 pet of the seeds tested germinated. Snow eriogonum responded favor- 
ably to N fertilization in the greenhouse pot trials but did not respond to P, K, or 
S fertilization. The direct-seeding trials indicated that snow eriogonum develops 
readily by this method. The authors conclude that snow eriogonum has a potential 
value for revegetating harsh sites. 

719. Tourbier, J. T. , and R. Westmacott. A Handbook for Small Surface Coal Mine 
Operators (U.S. OSM grant No. 14-34-0001-8900, Water Res. Cent., Univ. DE). U.S. 
GSM, 1980, 119 pp. 

This publication interprets the regulations of the Surface Mining Control and Recla- 
mation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87) as they affect the operators of small surface 
coal mines. It is designed to aid these operators in bringing their mining operation 



266 

into compliance with the regulations . The handbook contains Information which can be 
used by operators in planning and conducting their operations. Chapter 2 presents a 
concise and regionally specific review of some of the problems encountered in surface 
mining and reclamation. Chapters 3 and 4 contain descriptive and graphic presen- 
tations of the principal surface mining methods and equipment used by small mine 
operators. Chapter 5 presents information on the necessity of premining surveys, 
exploration and planning. Chapter 7 contains an excellent concise outline of ac- 
cepted reclamation and revegetation techniques. Chapter 8 outlines necessary consid- 
erations for proposing post-mining land uses. This handbook is an excellent presen- 
tation of information pertinent to the operation of a small surface coal mine in the 
Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

720. Tri-County Council for Western Maryland. Energy and Environmental Research 
for Minerals and Enterprise Development. Appalachian Reg. Comm. , Washington, DC, ARC 
77-122/MD-5632, June 1979, 168 pp. 

This report contains an assessment of a broad range of subjects related to increas- 
ing coal production in western Maryland. The study was not a comprehensive analysis 
of coal development implications. It is primarily meant to provide information to 
planners and decisionmakers considering the role of coal in the future of western 
Maryland. The document was reviewed and included in this annotated bibliography 
primarily for its value as a guide for cost-benefit analysis of surface coal mine 
reclamation. 

721. Tyus, H. M. , and J. M. Lockhart. Mitigation and Research Needs for Wildlife 
on Western Surface Mined Lands. Paper in the Mitigation Symposium: A National Work- 
shop on Mitigating Losses of Fish and Wildlife Habitats (CO State Univ., Fort Col- 
lins, CO, July 16-20, 1979). U.S. For. Ser. , Rocky Mount. For. and Range Exp. Sta. , 
GTR RM-65, 1979, pp. 252-255. 

Strategy and research needs for wildlife mitigation on mined lands in the Western 
United States are discussed in relation to the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation 
Act of 1977. Preliminary results of studies designed to determine reclamation and 
mitigation potential for breeding golden eagles are presented as an example of the 
problems in developing wildlife mitigation practices. This paper has particular rel- 
evance to the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

7 22. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Final Environmental Statement-Proposed Coal 
Leasing in Carbon Basin Area, Wyoming. July 1979, 205 pp. 

General statements describing the environment and the impacts and mitigations for the 
proposed mining operation are contained in chapters 1-3. More specific and useful 
information is contained in chapters 4-7. Chapter 4 describes mitigating measures 
not included in the proposed action. Specific standard evaluation criteria listed 
include slope shaping; topsoil removal, storage, and replacement; seedbed prepara- 
tion; and revegetation methods. Chapter 5 examines specific adverse impacts which 
cannot be avoided and includes statements on potential wind and water erosion, wild- 
life populations, and livestock grazing. Chapter 6 includes a comparison of short- 
and long-term productivity. Chapter 7 examines specific irreversible and irretriev- 
able commitments of resources. Much of the information and discussions contained in 
this document are specific for this area of Wyoming. The document has been included 
in this bibliography for its value in providing a historical perspective for the ap- 
plication of reclamation laws and guidelines and for the support data it contains. 

723. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Resource and Potential Reclamation Evalu- 
ation of Beulah Trench Study Area, West Renners Cove Coalfield, Mercer County, North 
Dakota. EMRIA Rep. 10, 1977, and summary, 1981, 290 pp. and 27 pp., respectively. 



267 

This two-document set presents the results of an extensive study that provides infor- 
mation for establishing reclamation objectives and lease requirements. Detailed data 
are given on the geology, coal resources, overburden, vegetation, hydrology, climate, 
and physiography of this area. Greenhouse studies were conducted to identify poten- 
tial toxicity and/or nutrient deficiency problems in the soils to be used during rec- 
lamation. A primary aim of the study was to provide data needed in the preparation 
of Environmental Impact Statements and Environmental Analysis Records , and to aid in 
the review of reclamation plans for proposed mining activities in the area. 

724. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Resource and Potential Reclamation Evalu- 
ation: White Tail Butte Study Area, Little Powder River Coal Field; Summary. EMIRA 
Rep. 13, 1977, 19 pp. 

The White Tail Butte Study Area is in Campbell County, WY, 35 miles north of Gil- 
lette. This report suimnarizes a larger final report of the same title dated 1981. 
Information is given on geology, coal reserves, overburden, soils, vegetation, and 
wildlife in the study area. Some recommendations for species selection, soil prepa- 
ration, and seeding are given. Detailed information can be obtained from the final 
report. 

725. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 30 — Mineral Resources; Chapter VII — 
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, Dep. Interior, Oct. 1, 1983. 

Chapter VII of 30 CFR establishes procedures for the Secretary of the Interior to use 
in implementing Public Law 95-87, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 
1977. These include performance standards for reclaiming abandoned coal-mined lands, 
surface areas of underground coal mines, and surface coal mines. 30 CFR is revised 
and published annually. The most timely reporting of changes in Federal laws is 
given in the Federal Register. 

726. U.S. Congress. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Public 
Law 95-87, Aug. 3, 1977, 91 Stat. 445. 

Public Law 95-87 is the act that authorized Federal regulations for reclaiming and 
revegetating surface areas of underground coal mines and surface coal mines. Regula- 
tions for implementing the act were prepared by the Office of Surface Mining and can 
be found in 30 CFR Chapter VII. 

727. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Impact Statement 
(Draft), Martin Lake D Area Lignite Surface Mine, Henderson, Rusk County, Texas. EPA 
906/9-83-003, Mar. 1983, 10 chapters. 

Although quite general in nature regarding revegetation of disturbed coal-mined 
lands, this publication is a good example of considerations necessary for an Environ- 
mental Impact Statement. Alternatives are presented along with company policy for 
establishing grazingland and forest land on disturbed areas. 

728. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Elkins Mine Draining Pollution Control 
Demonstration Project. Interagency Energy-Environ. Res. and Devel. Rep., EPA-GOO/7- 
090, Aug. 1977, 316 pp. 

This report describes in detail a cooperative demonstration project in the Roaring 
Creek-Grassy Run watersheds near Elkins, WV, to control the pollution from abandoned 
underground and surface mines. The main body of the report summarizes all aspects of 
the project and should be of value to private. State, and Federal agencies planning 
and conducting mine drainage and abatement projects. Scattered throughout the report 
are details on the revegetation of the areas under treatment, indicating that good 
vegetative cover was established on most disturbed areas, with legumes dominating af- 
ter 8 years of establishment. Tree survival and growth were also good. Cost details 
are given for the entire project; revegetation costs were $620/ha (1967 dollars). 



268 

729. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Impact Statement: Henry 
W. Pirkey Power Plant, Unit-I/ South Hallsville Surface Lignite Mine Project. Harri- 
son County, Texas. EPA 906/9-82-004, Mar. 1982, 262 pp. 

The proposed mine and power plant in Harrison County, TX, is located in an area of 
farming, pastureland, and timber production. Included in this article is an analysis 
of existing soils and vegetation. The listing of land uses and types of associated 
vegetation that dominate on those lands could be useful for anyone developing a re- 
vegetation plan in the area. 

730. U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency. Surface Mining Environmental Informa- 
tion Resources for State and Local Elected Officials. U.S. EPA Off. Reg. Intergov. 
Oper., Lib. Sys. Br., Feb. 1977, 92 pp. 

This guide to information sources concerning surface mining was produced by EPA to 
aid all those concerned with the subject. It is particularly beneficial to State and 
local legislators as it contains listings of Government agencies dealing with all as- 
pects of surface mining and bibliographic listings of resource materials covering 
subjects such as mining impacts, pollution control, reclamation, economics, public 
policy, and current and future developments. Although published in 1977, this guide 
contains information still pertinent to the surface coal mining industry. 

731. U.S. Forest Service. History of the Vegetative Rehabilitation and Equipment 
Workshop (VREW) 1946-1981. Equip. Dev. Can., Missoula, MT, Rep. 2200-Range, 8222 
2805, Dec. 1982, 71 pp. 

This publication reviews the organization and history of the Vegetative Rehabilita- 
tion and Equipment Workshop (VREW). VREW equipment development and test projects ac- 
complished in conjunction with the U.S. Forest Service Equipment Development Centers 
at Missoula, MT, and San Dimas , CA, are reviewed. Short descriptions and excellent 
photographs of this equipment enhance the information contained in this document. 
The information and equipment described are primiarily pertinent to range rehabilita- 
tion in the arid and semiarid areas of the Western United States. 

732. U.S. Forest Service. User Guide to Vegetation. Mining and Reclamation in 
the West. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-64, Nov. 1979, 85 pp. 

This publication is offered as a guide covering planning for reclamation of mined 
lands. Topics covered include: exploration and baseline data, species selection, 
plant materials, site preparation, planting methods, cultural treatments and post- 
mining management planning and monitoring. It will be especially useful to revegeta- 
tion planning in the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain surface coal mining 
regions. The information is presented in a discussion format and is supported by 
numerous graphs, photographs, references for additonal information, a glossary and an 
index. 

733. U.S. Forest Service. Vegetative Rehabilitation and Equipment Workshop, 35th 
Annual Report (Tulsa, OK, Feb. 8-9, 1981). Equip. Dev. Cen. , Missoula, MT. Rep. 
8122 2805, 1981, 84 pp. 

This publication contains concise descriptions of equipment, plant materials, and 
revegetation concerns as presented at a workshop attended by representatives of Fed- 
eral and State agencies, private industry, educational institutions, and foreign 
countries. Many of the projects described and much of the information presented is 
applicable to reclamation of surface coal mined land. The geographic focus of the 
workshop was the western U.S. However, some of the equipment and problems discussed 
are relevent to other regions of the U.S. This is an excellent reference that could 
aid in planning revegetation activities. The ratings assigned to the keywords used 
in this evaluation process indicate major areas of equipment development considered 
that are applicable to surface mined lands. 



269 



734. U.S. Forest Service. Wildlife User Guide For Mining and Reclamation. Inter- 
mountain For. and Ran. Exper. Stat., Ogden, UT, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT — 126, July 1982, 
77 pp. 

This publication is one of a series of guides that were prepared as part of the 
U.S. Forest Service Surface Environment and Mining (SEAM) program. It was designed 
to serve as a starting point for biologists to aid in the planning, evaluation, 
execution, and monitoring of reclamation work associated with mining and its ancil- 
lary facilities. Chapter 1 outlines the role of the wildlife or fisheries biologist 
in minerals management. Chapter 2 provides a synopsis of the laws and regulations 
governing minerals and mining that affect fish and wildlife management decisions. 
Chapter 3 explores fish and wildlife objectives in land management planning. Chapter 
4 describes the phases of mineral activity. Chapter 5 presents a framework for ana- 
lyzing the impacts and effects of proposed mining activities on fish and wild- 
life. Chapter 6 suggests potential effects and methods for mitigating those effects; 
included in this chapter are discussions on hxjman/wildlife encounters and distur- 
bance of habitat. Chapter 7 outlines methods available to the wildlife or fisheries 
biologist for coordinating efforts in achieving necessary reclamation procedure 
applications. The discussions contained in this guide are general in nature. Little 
or no hard data or guidelines are offered. The manual was written for nationwide 
application. 

735. U.S. Geological Survey. Final Environmental Statement - Proposed Mining and 
Reclamation Plan, Coal Creek Mine, Campbell County, Wyoming, on Federal Coal Lease 
W-3446. 1979, 200 pp. 

General statements describing the environment and the impacts and mitigative actions 
for the proposed mining operation are contained in chapters I-IV. Adverse impacts 
that cannot be avoided if the proposals are implemented are described in chapter V. 
Many of these comments pertain to natural vegetation production and site productiv- 
ity for grazing and wildlife needs. Other comments on site productivity related to 
short- and long-term uses are contained in chapter VI. Discussions of irreversible 
and irretrievable commitments of resources contained in chapter VII also contain com- 
ments on site rehabilitation and revegetation and consequent site productivity for 
grazing and wildlife use. Chapter VIII contains a discussion of more specific reha- 
bilitation alternatives and methods. The information and discussions contained in 
this document tend to be specific to this area of northwestern Wyoming. The document 
has been included in this bibliography for its value in providing a historical per- 
spective for applying reclamation laws and guidelines and for the support data it 
contains. 

736. U.S. Geological Survey. Final Environmental Statement, Proposed Mining and 
Reclamation Plan, Pronghorn Mine Consolidation Coal Company Coal Lease W-58112, Camp- 
bell County, WY. FES 79-13, Mar. 1979, 276 pp. 

General statements describing the environment and the impacts and mitigations for the 
proposed mining operation are contained in part A, sections I-VI. More specific in- 
formation appears throughout part B. In this section impacts and mitigation measures 
are discussed. Much of the information and discussions contained in this document 
are specific for this area of Wyoming. The document has been included in this bibli- 
ography for its value in providing a historical perspective for the application of 
reclamation laws and guidelines and for the support data it contains . 

737. U.S. Geological Survey and Montana Department of State Lands. Draft Environ- 
mental Statement - Proposed Expansion of Mining and Reclamation Plan, Big Sky Mine, 
Peabody Coal Company, Rosebud County, Montana, Federal Lease M-15965. 1978, 128 pp. 

General statements describing the environment and the impacts and mitigative actions 
for the proposed mining operation are contained in chapters I-IV. Adverse impacts 



270 

that cannot be avoided if the proposals are implemented are described in chapter V. 
Many of these comments pertain to natural vegetative production and site productivity 
for grazing and wildlife needs. Other comments on site productivity related to 
short- and long-term uses are contained in chapter VI. Discussions of irreversible 
and irretrievable commitments of resources contained in chapter VII also contain com- 
ments on site rehabilitation and revegetation and consequent site productivity for 
grazing and wildlife use. Chapter VIII contains a discussion of more specific reha- 
bilitation alternatives and methods. The information and discussions contained in 
this document tend to be specific to southeastern Montana. The document has been 
included in this bibliography for its value in providing a historical perspective for 
the application of reclamation laws and guidelines and for the support data it 
contains . 

738. U.S. Geological Survey and Montana Department of State Lands. Final Environ- 
mental Statement-Proposed Expansion of Mining and Reclamation Plan, Big Sky Mine, 
Peabody Coal Company, Rosebud County, MT, Federal Lease M-15965. V. 2, 1979, 66 pp. 

This document contains revisions in the mine plan as received through July II, 1979. 
General statements describing the planned mining and reclamation acitivies, including 
proposed seeding and planting mixtures, subsoil contouring, and topsoil handling 
methods are contained in chapter I. The remaining portions of this volume deal with 
consultation and coordination with other government agencies and with private organi- 
zations and individuals. The information and discussions contained in this volume 
form an addendum to the Draft Final Environment Statement published in 1978 and tend 
to be specific for southeastern Montana. This was included in this bibliography for 
its value in providing a historical perspective for the application of reclamation 
laws and guidelines. 

739. U.S. Geological Survey and Montana Department of State Lands. Final Envi- 
ronmental Statement-Proposed Mining and Reclamation Plan, Spring Creek Mine, Spring 
Creek Coal Company (A subsidary of Northern Energy Resources Company, Inc.), Big Horn 
County, MT, on Federal Lease M-069 782, 1979, 470 pp. 

General statements describing the environment and the impacts and mitigations for the 
proposed mining operation are contained in part A, sections I-VI. More specific in- 
formation appears throughout part B, where impacts and mitigation measures are dis- 
cussed. Much of the information and discussions contained in this document are spe- 
cific for this area of Wyoming. The document has been included in this bibliography 
for its value in providing a historical perspective for the application of reclama- 
tion laws and guidelines and for the support data it contains. 

740. U.S. Office of Surface Mining (Dep. Interior). 522 SMCRA Evaluation Utah 
Petition Evaluation Document. Final. OSM-PE-1 and OSM-EIS-4, Nov. 1980, 265 pp. 

This document contains an evaluation of the suitability of certain lands in southern 
Utah for surface coal mining and reclamation. The document combines a petition to 
designate this Federal land as unsuitable for surface coal mining operations , with an 
evaluation of that petition and an environmental impact analysis of the effect of 
various potential Federal actions on the petition. The discussions pertaining to the 
affected environment, potential impact, and reclamation opportunities are some of the 
best that appeared in documents of this type. However, the information was included 
in this annotated bibliography because of its value in providing a historical per- 
spective for the application of reclamation laws and guidelines and for the support 
data it contains. The publication documents the first time a petition to designate 
Federal lands as unsuitable for surface coal mining was filed under the Surface Min- 
ing Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. 

741. University of North Dakota. Ecological Studies on the Revegetation Process 
of Surface Coal Mined Areas in North Dakota (contract J0295015). BuMines OFR 47-83, 
1982, 13 V. 



271 

This excellent minerals research contract report contains 13 separate volumes con- 
sisting of: (1) executive summary, (2) physical and chemical properties of over- 
burden and topsoils as affected by time and amendments, (3) soil and vegetation de- 
velopment of abandoned mines, (4) soil and vegetation development on topsoiled areas, 
(5) plant production on spoils and topsoils as affected by time and amendments 
(fertilizer and leonardite) , (6) relationship between cover and aboveground biomass, 
(7) mineral analysis of plants grown on spoils and topsoils, (8) soil algae, (9) via- 
bility and diversity of the seed bank, (10) elements of macro- and microclimate, 
(11) effect of amendments on soil-plant-nutrient relations under controlled condi- 
tions, (12) screening plants for phosphorus requirements, and (13) statistical anal- 
ysis. Excellent reference lists are included with each volume. The volumes are 
available from the National Technical Information Service, as follows: OFR 47(l)-83, 
NTIS PB83-171322; OFR 47(2)-83, NTIS PB83-171330; OFR 47(3)-83, NTIS PB83-171348; OFR 
47(4)-83, NTIS PB83-171355; OFR 47(5)-83, NTIS PB83-171363; OFR 47(6)-83, NTIS PB83- 
171371; OFR 47(7)-83, NTIS PB83-171389; OFR 47(8)-83, NTIS PB83-171397; OFR 47(9)-83, 
NTIS PB83-171405; OFR 47(10)-83, NTIS PB 83-171413; OFR 43(ll)-83, NTIS PB83-171421; 
OFR 47(12)-83, NTIS PB83-171439; and OFR 47(13)-83, NTIS PB83-171447. 

742. Vail, J. A., and R. F. Wittwer. Biomass and Nutrient Accumulation in 10-Year 
Old Eastern Cottonwood, Virginia Pine, and Black Locust Plantations on Eastern Ken- 
tucky Mine Soil. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentol- 
ogy, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 
1982, pp. 237-242. 

This study was conducted to compare the biomass production and nutrient accumu- 
lation in lO-year-old plantations of eastern cottonwood ( Populus deltoides Bartr. ex 
Marsh.), Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.), and black locust ( Robinia pseudo- 
acacia L.) in Bell County, KY. Two of the treatments that were used by the Forest 
Service in 1968 were investigated in this study: (1) tree species grown with grasses 
and legumes and (2) tree species grown alone. Total aboveground biomass and nutrient 
accumulation (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) were determined for each species treatment combi- 
nation. Ten-year-old spoil and litter samples were also analyzed. No significant 
differences were found for total tree biomass. However, nutrient accumulations were 
found to be different between species: black locust accumulated the greatest amount 
of N, while cottonwood accumulated the greatest amount of Ca and Mg. There were no 
significant differences in the accumulation of P and K. Litter weights and nutrient 
content ranked in the general order of black locust > eastern cottonwood > Virginia 
pine. Spoil analysis showed no trends involving N, P, K, Ca, and Mg. Even though 
there was more spoil N under the black locust, it was not significantly higher. The 
pH of the spoils under eastern cottonwood were significantly higher than for either 
black locust or Virginia pine, probably due to the amount of Ca that has accumulated 
in the foliage of eastern cottonwood and then deposited on the forest floor each 
year. These results indicate that spoils have the potential to become productive 
soils in a relatively short time. 

743. Vandevender, J. C, and J. C. Sencindiver. The Effects of Three Forms of 
Nitrogen Fertilizer, Phosphorus, and Hydrated Lime on Abandoned Mine Land Reclama- 
tion. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Rec- 
lamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 497- 
502. 

This study evaluated the effects of lime, P, and three forms of N fertilizer on se- 
lected minesoil properties and establishment of vegetation on two surface-mined sites 
in West Virginia. Nine treatments, replicated four times, were used: (1) control, 
(2) lime, (3) lime plus phosphorus, (4) lime plus phosphorus plus ammonium nitrate, 
(5) lime plus phosphorus plus sodium nitrate, (6) lime plus phosphorus plus nitro- 
form, (7) lime plus ammonium nitrate, (8) lime plus sodium nitrate, and (9) lime 



272 

plus nitroform. Each of the above treatments were seeded to the following mixture: 
'Empire' birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.), 11.2 kg/ha; 'Ky-31' tall fescue 
( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.)» 16.8 kg/ha; redtop ( Agrostis alba L.), 3.4 kg/ha; 
'Tioga' deertongue ( Panicum clandestinum L.), 1.1 kg/ha; and 'Lathco' flatpea (Lathy- 
rus sylvestris L.), 1.1 kg/ha. Prior to treatment the experimental areas were devoid 
of vegetation and had the following spoil characteristics: an average pH of 4.1, low 
levels of Ca, Mg, and sodium bicarbonate-extractable P, medium to high levels of K 
and double acid extractable P, and total N of 0.18 to 0.36 pet. Applications of hy- 
drated lime significantly increased the neutralization potential, the pH (average 
value of 1.7), Ca levels, and the quantity of double-acid-extractable P and sodium 
bicarbonate-extractable P. This indicates that liming increased the solubility of P 
in these minesoils. Nitrogen applied to limed plots, as either NH4NH3, NaN03, or UF, 
had no effect on the total N levels of the minesoils. Vegetation establishment was 
significantly enhanced by lime and the lime plus P treatments. However, the lime 
plus N treatments and the lime plus P plus N treatment did not cause a significant 
increase in percent ground cover over the lime or lime plus P treatments, respective- 
ly. These results indicate that vegetative ground cover is not increased by adding 
N to limed or lime plus P treatments. Lime, P, and mulch were more important than N 
for establishing vegetative cover on these minesoils. 

744. Van Epps , G. A., and M. McKell. Revegetation of Disturbed Sites in the Salt 
Desert Range of the Intermountain West. Coll. Nat. Resour. , UT State Univ., UT 
Agric. Exp. Sta. Land Rehab. Series, No. 5, Sept. 1980, 37 pp. 

This publication reports the results of a study conducted in a major oil shale area 
near Vernal, UT. The study was designed to evaluate the effects of various propaga- 
tion methods, planting seasons, and other treatments on shrub establishment and sur- 
vival. The survival of bare-root stock was generally high in relation to that of 
container-grown plants. The authors state that it is advantageous to use bare-root 
stock for early season plantings because it is faster, easier, and more economical. 
However, inexperienced planting crews, late season planting, and the time when plant 
dormancy is broken can present situations that reduce the advantages of planting 
bare-root stock. Few or no survival benefits were obtained from applying additional 
moisture at the time of planting. Control of weed competition was found to be impor- 
tant to the survival of planted shrubs. The results of these studies indicate that 
plantings need to be observed for a minimum of 3 to 4 years before concluding that 
plants are in a permanent survival condition. While not specific for revegetation of 
surface-coal-mined land, the results and discussion presented in this publication are 
applicable to such activities in the arid regions of the Rocky Mountain and Northern 
Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

745. Van Luik, A., and W. Harrison. Reclamation of Abandoned Mined Lands Along 
the Illinois Waterway Using Dredged Material. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL/ES-127, Jan. 
1982, 112 pp. 

This report examines the feasibility of using river sediments from the Illinois, Kan- 
kaku, and Des Plaines Rivers in Illinois to reclaim abandoned surface mined areas 
near those rivers. Sediments were sampled from 28 proposed or actual dredging sites. 
The samples were analyzed, and found to be a suitable topsoil and/or reclamation me- 
dium. Problem abandoned surface-mined land sites were identified, and three were 
designated as being particularly well suited as dredged material reclamation sites. 
Economic analysis showed that using the dredged material as a reclamation medium 
would be competitive with near-source confined disposal. 

746. Van Ormer, D. E. Harvesting and Timber Management Considerations on Refor- 
ested Mine Lands. Paper in 1982 Seminar on Post-mining Productivity With Trees (Car- 
bondale, IL, Mar. 31-Apr. 2, 1982). South. IL Univ., Carbondale, IL, 1982, pp. 9- 
13. 



273 

This article outlines factors that determine the potential use and economic value of 
trees as a timber crop. These factors need to be considered when determining if a 
mined area should be reclaimed to a forestry land use classification. Characteris- 
tics of the timbered area that affect logging costs are reviewed, as well as consid- 
erations in determining the value of timber. 

747. Visser, S., J. Zak, and D. Parkinson. Effects of Surface Mining on Soil 
Microbial Communities and Processes. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, 
V. 2 (Based on the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, 
ND, June 12-16, 1978). Pergamon, 1978, pp. 643-651. 

This article provides a unique view of the effects of mining and reclamation in an 
often-overlooked area of reclamation, soil microbiology. The authors relate the re- 
sults of a study conducted in a subalpine spruce-fir forest area near Luscar, Al- 
berta, Canada. The authors investigated the effects of mining disturbance on soil 
microbial communities , the development of microbial communities , and activities in 
mine spoils following treatment with various organic and inorganic amendments. 

748. Vogel, W. G. A Guide for Revegetating Coal Minesoils in the Eastern U.S. 
For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rept. NE-68, 1981, 198 pp. 

This report contains information, recommendations, and guidelines for the revegeta- 
tion of land in the Eastern United States disturbed by coal mining. Included are 
brief descriptions of Eastern Coal Mining Regions along with their respective mine- 
soil properties and procedures for sampling, testing, and amending these soils. 
Plant species suitable for revegetating surface mined lands are identified and de- 
scribed in tabular form. Selection procedures for plant species are described, and 
methods and requirements for seeding and planting are explained. Reforestation meth- 
ods and results are described from recent data on 30-year-old plantings in the East- 
ern States. This report is a good treatment of the revegetation procedures and con- 
siderations necessary for coal-mined lands of the eastern coal fields. It contains 
extensive bibliographic listings and a glossary of terms. 

749. Vogel, W. G. Revegetation Research on Surface-Mined Land in Eastern Ken- 
tucky. Paper in Proceedings Fourth KY Coal Refuse Disposal and Utilization Seminar 
(Pineville, KY, June 6-7, 1978). Inst. Min. and Miner. Res., Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1978, pp. 5-15. 

The author discusses some of the U.S. Forest Service's revegetation research and its 
application to mined-land reclamation in eastern Kentucky. Research has been con- 
ducted on the suitability of woody and herbaceous species; effects of spoil proper- 
ties on plants; requirements for fertilizer, lime, mulch, and seedbed preparation; 
feasibility of all-season seeding; compatibility of trees with herbaceous cover; and 
microbial associations. Research studies initiated by other Federal and state agen- 
cies are also discussed. The author feels that one of the current problems associ- 
ated with reclamation is how to devise revegetation strategies for specific land 
uses. 

750. Vogel, W. G. Revegetating Surface Mined Lands With Herbaceous and Woody Spe- 
cies Together. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). 
U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 117-126. 

The author reviews the literature which deals with the use of seeded grasses and 
legumes, fertilizers, and herbicides to increase the survival and growth rates of 
planted and direct-seeded hardwoods and conifers on surface-mined lands in the East- 
ern United States. The importance of establishing a herbaceous cover, excluding 
grass species, to provide adequate erosion control is demonstrated. Climatic factors 
and the tree species used are important variables to consider when reclaiming mine 
spoils. The survival and growth rate of planted trees can be significantly affected 



274 



by the yearly precipitation and how resistant the tree species is to competition and 
drought. When tree species and herbaceous species are planted in combination, the 
best method of planting is to use alternate strips of seeded herbaceous and tree spe- 
cies. This paper provides the reader with a clear understanding of all the factors 
affecting the establishment of trees on surface-mined lands. 

751. Voorhees , L. D., M. J. Sale, J. W. Webb, and P. J. Mulholland. Guidance for 
Disposal of Uranium Mill Tailings: Long-Term Stabilization of Earthen Cover Materi- 
als (U.S. NRC contract B0279). Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. ORNL/TM-8685, Oct. 1983, 101 pp. 

The purpose of this document is to provide the technical information necessary for 
NRC to evaluate plans for stabilizing uranium mill tailings over a wide range of site 
"and environmental conditions. It specifically addresses means to minimize long-term 
erosion, disturbance, and dispersal of uranium mill tailings by natural forces. This 
document provides excellent literature reviews of the physical and biological factors 
and processes of soil surface stabilization. The variations of the environmental 
characteristics at existing and potential uranium mill sites are discussed. The con- 
cept of an optimal plan is addressed and the information necessary to judge whether a 
proposed plan constitutes an optimal design for long-term tailings disposal with re- 
spect to site-specific conditions is outlined. While this manual was designed to 
provide guidance in assessing plans for the stabilization of uranium mill tailings, 
it provides an excellent reference to soil surface stabilization in general. Conse- 
quently it is applicable to reclamation planning for surface coal minelands. Because 
of the preponderance of uranium mill sites in the Western United States, this docu- 
ment tends to be more relevant to the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal 
Mining Regions. 

752. Voorhees, L. D. , M. J. Sale, J. W. Webb, and P. J. Mulholland. Long-Term 
Stabilization of Uranium Mill Tailings. Paper in International Conference on Radio- 
active Waste Management (Seattle, WA, May 16, 1983). NTIS PC A02/MF AOl, 15 pp. 

An analysis is presented on the design of earthen cover materials, recent research 
and development, and policy for minimizing erosion, disturbance, and dispersion 
of uranium mill tailings. The major natural causes for disturbance of uranium mill 
tailings are water and wind soil erosion. There are three major options available 
for stabilizing uranium mill tailings: (1) rock cover, (2) soil and revegetation, or 
(3) a combination of both. The best method to use depends on site specific charac- 
teristics such as climate, geomorphology, soils, and the design variables involved 
(location of the disposal site, embankment height, embankment slope, etc.). The 
authors conclude that disposal plans should be evaluated in terms of site-specific 
environmental characteristics, proposed design configurations, and the ability to 
satisfy long-term performance requirements. 

753. Wadsworth, S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: Regula- 
tory Controversies and Constitutional Challenges. Ecol. Law Quart., v. 8, 1980, 
pp. 762-773. 

The author describes issues surrounding the promulgation of the permanent regulations 
under which the act (SMCRA) is to be implemented and recent consitutional challenges 
to the act. Although dealing totally with the act at the time of writing in a legal 
setting, the article provides background information for all interested in compliance 
with SMCRA in all phases of the coal mining industry. 

754. Wagenet, R. J., C. M. McKell, and A. Malek. Hydrologic Properties of Pro- 
cessed Oil Shale. Reclam. Reveg. Res., v. 1, No. 1, 1982, pp. 33-50. 

Two separate studies, a field study and a laboratory study, were conducted to assess 
the potential for water harvesting and to determine the salt release and movement in 



275 

the water harvested from a processed oil shale disposal pile in Anvil Points, CO. 
This study is of interest because the water harvested from these sites could be used 
to irrigate rehabilitation plantings. The field study utilized several proven soil 
stabilizing materials to test their water-harvesting effectiveness. The materials 
used were compacted shale, polyvinyl acetate (PVA) , styrene butadiene latex (Petroset 
SB), paraffin, and fiber mulch (silva fiber). Four simulated rainfall storm periods 
of constant intensity and various intervals were tested on the plots treated with the 
stabilizing materials. Runoff, infiltration, electrical conductivity, and sediment 
yields were collected. It was found that Petroset SB and paraffin were superior in 
their water-harvesting efficiency. However, Petroset SB resulted in the highest 
sediment production, while the paraffin treatment resulted in the lowest amount of 
sediment. Salt release, determined from laboratory lysimeter studies, was signifi- 
cantly different among the treatments. Plots that were treated with paraffin pro- 
duced runoff that had the lowest salinity. Petroset SB produced the highest runoff 
salinity. Except for the paraffin treatment, excessive amounts of salt and sediment 
in harvested water from surface-treated plots make this water unsuitable for non- 
salt-tolerant plants. 

755. Wagner, W. L. , W. C. Martin, and E. F. Aldon. Natural Succession on Strip 
Mined Lands in Northwestern New Mexico. Reclam. Rev., v. 1, No. 2, 1978, pp. 67-73. 

This study compared plant species composition and diversity on mined and unmined 
areas (reference area) at the McKinley coal mine in northwestern New Mexico. The 
eight mined sites sampled date from 1961 to 1972. The unmined sites were adjacent to 
the mined sites. Vegetation was surveyed with respect to life forms, density, and 
importance value (dominance x frequency). Vegetation on the mined area was composed 
primarily of introduced annuals and herbaceous perennials, which suggests a n early 
serai stage of primary succession. Unmined areas had greater species diversity than 
mined areas in all life forms except annuals. On unmined areas, 95 pet of the vege- 
tation was composed of native herbaceous perennials and woody taxa (sub-shrubs, 
shrubs, and trees). The importance values of annual species decreased and that of 
herbaceous perennials increased with time since mining. This indicates a trend to- 
wards dominance by longer lived taxa. The authors recommend that reseeding programs 
should involve various native species since they are natural colonizers, and as early 
serai species they could speed the natural successional pattern of mined land. 

756. Walker, R. F. The Growth, Nutrient Absorption, and Moisture Status of Se- 
lected Woody Species in Coal Mine Spoil in Response to an Induced Infection by the 
Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Pisolithus Tinctorius . Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. TN, Knoxville, TN, 
1982, 106 pp. 

The growth, nutrient absorption, and internal moisture status of certain woody spe- 
cies inoculated with the mycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius and planted on coal 
mine spoil are examined in this report. Nursery-grown loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) 
and Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) seedlings infected with Pisolithus were 
outplanted on coal mine spoil in Tennessee that had been previously hydroseeded with 
a mixture of herbaceous species. Fertilizer was then applied. Sweet birch ( Be tula 
lenta L.) and European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) were grown under 
high, intermediate, and low fertility regimes in sand culture containing Pisolithus 
for 5 months prior to transplanting onto spoil in the greenhouse. This article con- 
tains an excellent background discussion concerning mycorrhizae on coal spoil in the 
Eastern United States, as well as an excellent reporting of the study itself. Sig- 
nificant differences in the effects of inoculating with Pisolithus on the four spe- 
cies were found, as well as fertilizer effects. However, the loblolly pine and sweet 



276 



birch that were innoculated with Pisolithus showed considerable potential for use in 
revegetating coal mine wastes. 

757. Walker, R. F., D. C. West, and S. B. McLaughlin. Pisolithus tinctorius Ecto- 
mycorrhizae Enhance the Survival and Growth of Pinus taeda on a Southern Appalachian 
Coal Spoil. Paper in Proceedings of the First Biennial Southern Silvicultural Re- 
search Conference (Atlanta, GA, Nov. 6-7, 1980). U.S. For. Ser., South. For. Exp. 
Sta., GTR 50-34, 1981, pp. 29-33. 

The effects of Pisolithus tinctorius ectomycorrhizae on the establishment and growth 
of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) on surface-mined sites were evaluated in a study 
conducted on coal spoil in Campbell County, TN. V_. tinctorius significantly improved 
the survival and growth of loblolly pine seedlings on coal spoils where a grass cover 
had been previously established. Fertilization improved seedling growth but sub- 
stantially reduced seedling survival. Unfertilized seedlings inoculated with jP. 
tinctorius produced the best survival and growth. The results of this study are ap- 
plicable to revegetation of surface-mined lands in the southern portion of the East- 
ern Coal Mining Region. 

758. Walker, R. F., D. C. West, and S. B. McLaughlin. Pisolithus tinctorius Ecto- 
mycorrhizae Reduce Moisture Stress of Virginia Pine on a Southern Appalachian Coal 
Spoil. Pres. at the North American Forest Biology Workshop (Lexington, KY, July 25, 
1982). Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., KY, CONF-820793-1 , 1982, 10 pp. 

This study examined the effect of Pisolithus tinctorius ectomycorrhizae on the inter- 
nal moisture status of Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) outplanted on sites 
disturbed by surface mining in Campbell County, TN. The study incorporated nursery- 
gro\im seedlings with three levels of infection with this fungal symbiont and control 
seedlings without the symbiont. A split-plot design was used so that each ectomycor- 
rhizal treatment contained seedlings fertilized at a rate of 336 kg/ha NPK and non- 
fertilized seedlings. All seedlings had additional minor infections with another 
ectomycorrhizal species, Thelephora terrestris . A pressure chamber technique was 
used to determine the internal water status of the seedlings during a period of high 
moisture stress. During this period xylem pressure potential was measured at dawn, 
when internal water stress was least, and again at midnight, when it was greatest. 
The seedlings infected with Pisolithus exhibited lower moisture stress than seedlings 
not infected or infected at the lowest rate. The effect of fertilizer was not 
significant. The results and discussion contained in this report are important to 
planting trees on mined sites, not only in the Eastern Coal Mining Region, but in 
other areas of the United States as well. 

759. Wallace, A., E. M. Romney, and R. B. Hunter. The Challenge of a Desert: 
Revegetation of Disturbed Desert Lands. Paper in Transuranics in Desert Ecosystems 
(NV Applied Ecology Group Prog. Rep. Meet., Las Vegas, NV, Mar. 2, 1977). U.S. Dep. 
Energy, NV Oper. Off., Las Vegas, NV, NVO-181, UC-11, Nov. 1977, pp. 17-40. 

This report describes factors and natural processes that are of importance when re- 
vegetating areas in the northern Mohave and southern Great Basin Deserts. Aspects of 
desert ecosystems discussed include use of water by plants, amount of soil used by 
plants as a growing medium, soil characteristics, plant population dynamics, avail- 
ability of plant nutrients, and plant population characteristics of disturbed sites. 
Measures to enhance vegetation success, such as transplanting clumps of shrubs and 
selecting seed from pioneering shrub species, are also discussed. While this report 
deals with very arid desert conditions, principles of desert ecosystems covered here 
may be applicable to other desert regions. 

760. Wallace, P. M. , and G. R. Best. Enhancing Ecological Succession: 6. Suc- 
cession of Vegetation, Soils and Mycorrhizal Fungi Following Strip Mining For 
Phosphate. Paper in 1983 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and 



277 

Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1983). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1983, 
pp. 385-394. 

This study was conducted to investigate aboveground and belowground changes during 
succession following phosphate mining in southwestern Polk County, FL. Six different 
aged nonreclaimed phosphate mined areas were studied. The sites ranged in age from 
an area presently being mined to 60 years old. Four major variables were of interest 
in this study: (1) aboveground vegetation composition changes, (2) organic matter 
dynamics and soil nutrient parameters, (3) changes in root structure, and (4) mycor- 
rhizal population density changes through time and the identification of indigenous 
mycorrhizae. Assessment of the aboveground structure indicated that within 60 years 
after mining a well-developed ecosystem was present. Data collected on root length 
and biomass indicate that belowground root structure increased with time. The major- 
ity of plant species invading phosphate-mined areas exhibited extensive mycorrhizal 
infection within 3 years . This indicates the importance of endomycorrhizal fungi to 
the succession of native forest ecosystems on phosphate-mined areas, warranting con- 
tinued investigation into the potential use of mycorrhizal inoculation as a reclama- 
tion tool. 

761. Walsh, J. P., and C. C. Legal. Preliminary Reclamation and Revegetation for 
a Proposed Surface Coal Mine in Northwestern Colorado. Bull. Assoc. Eng. Geol., v. 
15, No. 2, Spring 1978, pp. 221-230. 

This article briefly describes a preliminary reclamation plan for Colowyo Coal Co.'s 
planned surface mine in Moffat County in northwestern Colorado. Wildlife habitat was 
chosen as the postmining land use, using native plants and grasses to revegetate the 
area. A description of a plan for upgrading adjacent areas for grazing land is also 
given. A very brief description of planned techniques for using topsoil, planting 
native plants, and habitat improvement is presented. Since reclamation had not yet 
been attempted at the time the article was written, no results or data are given. 

762. Ward, A. D., L. G. Wells, and R. E. Phillips. Infiltration Through Recon- 
structed Surface Mine Spoils and Soils. Pres. at the 1981 Winter Meeting, Am. Soc. 
Agric. Eng. (Chicago, IL, Dec. 15-18, 1981). Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Paper 81-2508, 
28 pp. 

Reconstructed profiles consisting of spoil and soil material from a surface mine 
location in western Kentucky were prepared in large laboratory bins and subjected to 
simulated rainfall. The profiles consisted of spoil material alone and topsoil over 
spoil material. The profiles were instrumented to measure infiltration rate, soil- 
spoil density, water content, soil water potential, and surface runoff. Infiltration 
through the reconstructed spoil profiles was very low despite the coarse texture of 
the material and may have been due to the well-graded nature of the material. Infil- 
tration through the topsoil horizons was similar to that of many agricultural soils 
of this area. Surface sealing eventually dominated as the tests progressed, greatly 
reducing infiltration rates. Initial moisture content and the density of the mate- 
rial significantly influenced the infiltration measured for both the spoil and the 
topsoil. The results of this study are relevant to establishing a favorable planting 
medium for revegetating surface-mined lands. The information is directly appliable 
to the Interior Coal Mining Region, but the principles and methods discussed are ap- 
plicable over a much broader geographic area. 

763. Ward, R. T., W. L. Slauson, and C. W. Weldon. Ecogenic Variability in Native 
Shrubs Related to the Establishment of Vegetation on Disturbed Arid Shrublands. Ch. 
in Revegetation Studies on Oil Shale Related Disturbances in Colorado (U.S. DOE con- 
tract DE-A502-76EVO4018, Dep. Range Sci., CO State Univ.), U.S. DOE, DOE/ EV/ 040 18-6, 
June 1982, pp. 57-65. 



278 

This study is part of a larger project evaluating the impact and potential for recla- 
mation following oil shale mining and retorting processes. This paper reports the 
sixth-year results of this study. The objectives of the study were to (1) evaluate 
the natural variation within species (especially shrubs) native to the Piceance Ba- 
sin, CO, (2) recommend source materials expected to provide long-term, natural suc- 
cession on selected sites, and (3) evaluate the responses of shrub species already 
growing in an edaphic environment containing retorted shale. The populations of 
true mountain mahogany ( Cercocarpus montanus Raf.), antelope bitterbrush, ( Purshia 
tridentata (Pursh) DC), and fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.) 
studied did not exhibit strong evidence of ecotypic differentiation, Ecotypic dif- 
ferentiation with respect to competitive ability, moisture, and short growing season 
stress are documented for mountain snowberry ( Symphoricarpos oreophilus Gray), Utah 
serviceberry ( Amelanchier utahensis Kochne), and winterfat ( Ceratoides lanata (L.) 
C.A. Mey.). This paper is an excellent reference for choosing plant materials for 
revegetation activities. Although it addresses vegetation establishment on spent oil 
shale in Colorado, the results are applicable throughout much of the Northern Great 
Plains , Rocky Mountain and east portions of the Pacific Coal Mining Regions . 

764. Wasser, C. H. Ecology and Culture of Selected Species Useful in Revegetating 
Disturbed Lands in the West. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser., FWS/OBS-82-56, Sept. 1982, 
347 pp. 

An excellent reference to ecological information on grasses, f orbs , shrubs, and trees 
commonly used in revegetation and reclamation of surface mined and other disturbed 
lands in the Western United States. The purpose of the handbook is to assist the 
reader in gaining a better understanding of the ecology and culture of the species 
listed. For each species listed in the handbook, the following information is given; 
origin or the geographic area where the plant is indigenous , growth and morpholog- 
ical characteristics, environmental relationships, species culture information, uses 
and field management techniques, associated species (synecology) , common insect and 
disease pests, and improved varieties. References used to develop the description of 
each species are also given. 

765. Weiler G. , and W. L. Gould. Establishment of Blue Grama and Fourwing Salt- 
bush on Coal Mine Spoils Using Saline Ground Water. J. Range. Manage., v. 36, No. 6, 
Nov. 1983, pp. 712-717. 

This article reports the results of a greenhouse study conducted in New Mexico that 
examined the effect of limited irrigation of topsoiled sodic shaley spoil with water 
of various salinities on the emergence and growth of blue grama grass (Bouteloua 
gracilis (H.B.K) Lag.) and fourwing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt,), 
Four levels of salinity for the irrigation water were used, ranging from 750 to 
12,890 ymho/cm. The sodium adsorption ratio of the irrigation water ranged from 2 to 
68. The emergence and growth of blue grama were reduced with increased irrigation 
water salinity. The blue grama did not survive the highest salinity treatment. The 
highest saline water treatment reduced fourwing saltbush emergence but not growth 
following the seedling stage. The infiltration rate of the simulated topsoiled spoil 
decreased as the sodicity of the irrigation water increased. The electrical conduc- 
tivity of the soil increased as the amount and salinity of the water increased. The 
results indicated that moderately saline water (EC < 4230 ymho) may be suitable for 
revegetating mine spoils with blue grama and fourwing saltbush. The results and dis- 
cussion contained in this report are pertinent to revegetation efforts in portions of 
the Rocky Mountain and Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Regions. 

766. Weisenfluh, G. A., J. C. Perm, A. Bailey, T. L, Despard, and W, G. 
Vogel, A Study of Geologic Factors Influencing Reclamation of Federal Coal Bearing 
Lands in Northern Alabama. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 



279 

Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 151-156. 

This study was done to determine the geochemical attributes of potential overburden 
materials from Federal lands in northern Alabama and how these materials may affect 
plant growth. A second objective was to determine whether rock material could be 
identified as being favorable or unfavorable for reclamation purposes. The study was 
divided into three phases: (1) description of the geologic setting of the area, 
(2) analyses to determine the geochemical and mineralogical properties of the mate- 
rial along with a greenhouse study to determine the ability of the material to sup- 
port plant growth and respond to fertilization, and (3) a statistical analysis of the 
greenhouse and geochemical data. The results of the study show that most of the rock 
material is not acid producing, but slightly alkaline. The fine-grained textured 
shales were found to be better suited for revegetation than the sandstones or pebbly 
sandstones. The best response was found when a nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizer was 
used. It would appear that little modification of overburden materials would be 
needed to enhance reclamation efforts in northern Alabama. 

767. Welborn, L. E., and M. E. White. Regulations for Surface Mining Reclamation. 
Dames and Moore Eng. Bull., No. 52, Aug. 1980, pp. 2-12. 

This article provides an excellent review of the Surface Mining Control and Bteclama- 
tion Act of 1977, other regulations pertinent to surface coal mine reclamation, and 
the regulatory program administered under the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation 
and Enforcement. The implications of the successful lawsuit brought by the National 
Coal Association and the American Mining Congress that challenged some of the perma- 
nent program regulations of the Office of Surface Mining are discussed. This article' 
has been included in this bibliography for its value in providing background informa- 
tion on surface coal mining regulations and its historical perspective. 

768. Wells, L. G., A. D. Ward, and R. E. Phillips. Infiltration Characteristics 
of Kentucky Surface Mine Spoils and Soils. Paper in 1982 Symposium on Surface Min- 
ing, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). 
Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 445-456. 

The results of a laboratory study on infiltration through reconstructed spoils and 
soils from surface mines in eastern and western Kentucky are presented. The objec- 
tives of this research were to (1) determine the hydraulic characteristics of recon- 
structed surface-mine spoils and soils and (2) evaluate the effects of initial soil 
moisture, profile bulk density, and rainfall intensity on infiltration through recon- 
structed profiles. Rainfall was simulated and soil moisture content was monitored 
using a dual-probe gamma density gauge and tensiometers were used to measure soil 
matric suction. Western Kentucky spoils were characterized by extremely low infil- 
tration rates. This can be attributed to high bulk densities and well-graded parti- 
cle constituency of the spoil material. Eastern Kentucky shale materials had high 
infiltration rates even at high bulk densities. However, the sandstone material from 
eastern Kentucky had infiltration rates like those of the western Kentucky spoil 
material. The authors state that caution should be used when interpreting these re- 
sults because (1) different geologic associations will result in spoil materials with 
different characteristics, (2) different mining and reclamation techniques might re- 
sult in profiles with different infiltration characteristics, and (3) vegetation will 
influence surface sealing effects. This study was conducted with bare soil. 

769. Whitby-Costescu, L. , J. Shillabeer, and D. F. Coates. Environmental Plan- 
ning. Ch. 10 in Can. Cent. Miner. Energy Technol., Pit Slope Manual. CANMET Rep. 
77-2, Feb. 1977, 93 pp. 

This document is a chapter in a multivolume manual. Each chapter, as well as supple- 
ments to these chapters, has been published separately. The purpose of this chapter 



280 

is to provide procedural guidelines for assessing and developing mineral exploration 
and mining plans, and plans for postmining land use. Topics considered in this chap- 
ter include preproduction stage, water supply and disposal, reclamation of mineral 
wastes, time and budget guidelines, and legislation. The section on reclamation of 
mineral wastes, while being relatively short, provides an excellent reference for 
surface-mine reclamation procedures, succinctly outlining major considerations and 
treatment options. While the manual was written for application in Canada, some of 
the information is relevant to reclamation activities in the Northern United States. 

770. White, J. R. Trees for Reclamation in the Eastern United States, The Chang- 
ing Perspective. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). 
-U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 65-68. 

The author reviews tree planting projects and the methods used to establish trees 
on mined land in West Virginia. Some of the methods that have been used are direct- 
seeding by helicopter, planting of bare-root stock, hydroseeding, and using a tree 
spade. The reasons why tree plantings are no longer prominent on surface-mined land 
are also given. They involve economics, logistics, changes in laws, methods of oper- 
ation, differing characteristics of trees, and manpower availability. A potential 
problem with the Public Law 95-87 enforcement program is also identified, i.e., the 
prohibition of placing trees on the outside edge of the lowest coal seam being mined. 
The author feels that this portion of the regulations neglects the beneficial uses of 
nonmerchantable timber and woody material (windrowing) for sediment and drainage con- 
trol, protection and encouragement of new growth, and providing escape habitat and 
browse for wildlife. The author also identifies West Virginia's Surface Mining Con- 
trol and Reclamation Act as encouraging for tree use because it recognizes commercial 
woodland as an acceptable land use for surface-mined land. The Federal Government's 
program does not peirmit private woodland as a goal of reclamation capable of land 
release. Trees have been overshadowed by the use of grass and legume species as the 
dominant component in a reclamation plan. However, with greater experimentation, 
planning, direction, and technological advancement, trees can regain the significance 
they once had in surface-mine reclamation. 

771. White, R. L. Land Reclamation in Texas - An Opportunity. Paper in Proceed- 
ings Gulf Coast Lignite Conference: Geology, Utilization and Environmental As- 
pects (Austin, TX, June 2-4, 1976). Bureau Econ. Geol., Univ. TX, Austin, TX, 1978, 
pp. 199-208. 

This paper gives a brief description of the land reclamation program used by Texas 
Utilities Generating Co. at their coal mines located near Fairfield, TX. Informa- 
tion is included on the characteristics of Texas lignite coal, location of the coal 
in eastcentral Texas, and the natural vegetation of the area. By minimizing the 
environmental effects of surface mining and restoring the productivity of the land, 
the land reclamation program used by Texas Utilities Generating Co. has proven to be 
successful. 

772. White, S. L. A Review of Processes Used by Western States To Determine Post- 
Mining Use. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, 
Revegetation, & Management, (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State 
Univ., Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 3-5. 

An analysis comparing Federal regulations and proposed revisions with State regu- 
lations related to determination of postmining land use in six Western States (Colo- 
rado, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and New Mexico) is presented. This 
analysis is based on a review of these regulations, and/or informal discussions with 
state Agency personnel and industry representatives. In the author's opinion the re- 
visions proposed by the Office of Surface Mining (OSM) would simplify the process of 
changing land use at the Federal level and, if adopted by the States, could encourage 



281 

operators and local planners to adapt land use to local or regional requirements. 
The author presents a clear and concise analysis that is applicable. 

773. Whitmore, R. C. Managing Reclaimed Surface Mines in West Virginia to Promote 
Nongame Birds. Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife Needs in The 
Eastern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-78- 
81, 1978, pp. 381-386. 

This article presents recommendations for management procedures which are designed to 
obtain maximum use of surface mines by nongame birds. Small changes in vegetative 
structure can increase avian species diversity. Management alternatives for nongame 
and game birds are presented using traditional range management strategies. Plant 
species known to provide suitable habitat for nongame birds are given. 

774. Wiener, D. P. Economics of Surface Mine Reclamation. Paper in Conference on 
the Economics of Mined-Land Reclamation (Proc. Conf. cosponsored by the Land Reclama- 
tion Program, Argonne Nat. Lab. and U.S. Dep. Energy, Chicago, IL, Sept. 1-2, 1981). 
Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL/LRP-TM-20, Sept. 1981, pp. 45-54. 

This paper is based on a longer study by the same author (item 775) . This study was 
an attempt to ascertain the true cost of reclamation at 15 major surface mines in 6 
Western States. Cost estimates reported ranged from $200 to $18,000 per acre. The 
author found no uniformity in accounting for or reporting such costs. The author 
stresses that reclamation of surface coal mines to productive, native conditions has 
not been achieved in the arid and semiarid regions of the Western United States. 

775. Wiener, D. P. Reclaiming the West: The Coal Industry and Surface-mined 
Lands. INFORM, Inc., 1980, 451 pp. 

This book provides the results of a survey of 15 mines operated by 13 surface coal 
mining companies in North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Ari- 
zona. The land reclamation programs at each of the 15 mine sites were evaluated 
against a set of 33 criteria. A synopsis of the results of the survey is provided 
along with a case history for each mine. The author attempts to provide an unbiased 
view of the reclamation program for each mine through a discussion of the methods 
used and the results obtained thus far in each revegetation effort. Considerable 
amounts of hard data are presented in each case history to substantiate the comnmients 
made by the author. In addition, the book contains sections defining the mining and 
reclamation techniques used in the survey. This book provides an excellent unbiased 
and uncompromising view of surface mine reclamation in the Western United States 
prior to 1980. 

776. Wilkey, M. , and S. Zellmer, Land Reclamation at an Abandoned Deep Coal Mine. 
J. Environ. Eng. Div., Proc. ASCE, (New York, NY), v. 105, No. EE5 , Oct. 1979, 
pp. 843-853. 

This article summarizes the reclamation of a 55-year-old coal gob pile near Staunton, 
IL. Erosion had cut deep gullies into the pile, and it was devoid of vegetation. 
Reclamation included recontouring , topsoiling, liming, and fertilizing prior to re- 
vegetation. Also, two revegetation studies were initiated to (1) assess overall re- 
vegetation success and (2) determine a cost effective means of achieving long-term 
vegetation on highly acidic (pH <3) gob material. A very brief outline of these dem- 
onstration projects is given. The projects were still ongoing when this article was 
written. 

777. Wisdom, H. W, , and W. B. Snyder. Measuring National and Regional Bene- 
fits From the Reforestation of Abandoned Mine Lands in the Southern Appalachians. 
Abstract of paper presented at the Meeting of the American Council for Reclamation 



282 

Research (Univ. AL, University, AL, Sept. 19-22, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, 
pp. 61-64. 

The authors developed an economic model to evaluate the national, regional, and land 
owner benefits from reforestation of surface mined lands. Tentative results from ap- 
plication of the model in southwestern Virginia indicate that reforestation of mined 
lands cannot be economically justified. Absence of local markets and limited areas 
suitable for timber product plantings were the chief drawbacks to commercially pro- 
ductive forests in this area. 

778. Wiseman, T. Hitting Pay Dirt With Pine Seeds: Strip Mines Reforested. Min. 
Congr. J., V. 64, No. 12, 1978, pp. 59-60. 

This article discusses the direct-seeding of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.), longleaf 
pine ( Pinus palustris Mill.) and slash pine ( Pinus elliottii Engelm.) on surface- 
mined land near Birmingham, AL. General information is presented on the economic 
benefits of direct-seeding pine on disturbed sites. The total cost of using this 
method is estimated to be approximately one-third that of planting pine seedlings. 
Other benefits of direct-seeding pine species are mentioned and include erosion con- 
trol and wildlife habitat. It has been shown that pines planted on mined land in 
Alabama grow as well as those on unmined sites. 

779. Wittwer, R. F., S. B. Carpenter, and D. H. Graves. Survival and Growth of 
Oaks and Virginia Pine Three Years After Direct Seeding on Mine Spoils. Paper in 
1981 SjTnposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexing- 
ton, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1981, pp. 1-4. 

Growth and survival of four tree species established by direct-seeding techniques on 
mountaintop removal spoils were evaluated after three growing seasons in Bell County 
in southeastern Kentucky. The species and seeding rates used were northern red oak 
( Quercus rubra L.), 2 seeds per spot; pin oak ( Quercus palustris Muenchh.), 2 seeds 
per spot; chestnut oak ( Quercus prinus L.), 1 seed per spot; and Virginia pine ( Pinus 
virginiana Mill.), 6 to 10 seeds per spot. Treatments consisted of a control, ferti- 
lizer, bark mulch, and a fertilizer-bark mulch combination. Results indicate that 
stocking and height growth are improved by fertilizer and bark mulch amendments. 

780. Wittwer, R. F. , D. H. Graves, and S. B. Carpenter. Establishing Oaks and 
Virginia Pine on Appalachian Surface Mine Spoils by Direct Seeding. Reclam. Rev., 
V. 2, 1979, pp. 63-66. 

This paper provides a brief review of a study assessing seeding of northern red oak 
( Quercus rubra L.), chestnut oak ( Quercus prinus L.), pin oak ( Quercus palustris 
Muenchh.), and Virginia pine ( Pinus virginiana Mill.) on surface mine spoil in Bell 
County, KY. Seeds were planted and covered with spoil to a depth approximating their 
diameter. Treatments included 2.5 cm of bark mulch, fertilizer tablets, and a combi- 
nation of mulch and fertilizer. Survival was increased 22 pet (31 pet vs. 53 pet) by 
the combined treatment over the untreated controls. The combined treatment increased 
first year height growth 87 pet (6.0 cm vs. 11.2 cm). The authors conclude that 
direct-seeding of oaks and Virginia pine offers many advantages over bare-root seed- 
lings for revegetating mine spoils in the Appalachian region. 

781. Wochok, Z. S. Alternatives for Revegetation of Disturbed Lands. Abstract 
of paper presented at the Meeting of the American Council for Reclamation Research 
(Univ. AL, University, AL, Sept. 19-22, 1979). Reclam. Rev., v. 3, 1980, pp. 61-64. 

The author traces the history of containerized seedling and plant tissue culture 
development through the 1970' s and to the present. The use of both sources will in- 
crease, particularly in the Southwest in the development of selected native and 



283 

introduced species which can be mass produced through propagation. This is particu- 
larly true of species difficult to establish by seeding or cuttings. 

782. Wolf, C. H. Post Mining Land Use: Economic Comparison of Forestry and Pas- 
tureland Alternatives. Paper in Trees for Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 
1980). U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 1980, pp. 127-135. 

The author describes some of the factors that influence postmining land use and ex- 
plores the economics of forest and pasture land use alternatives in southeastern 
Ohio. Most determinants to postmining land use can be categorized into one of three 
groups: (1) soil properties, (2) legal requirements and constraints, and (3) eco- 
nomic considerations. Climatic factors are important but are beyond human control. 
A comparison is made on the economic potential for cow-calf operations with hybrid 
poplar ( Populus L. spp.) and black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) plantations. Results 
indicate that a combination of pastureland and black walnut plantations will achieve 
the highest rate of return on investment. The hybrid poplar plantation had a nega- 
tive land value, indicating that from a financial standpoint, it is not a desirable 
land-use. The author concludes that during the planning process postmining land use 
alternatives must be thoroughly investigated. After evaluating the financial returns 
for several alternatives, it would be possible to select the most favorable postmin- 
ing land use. 

783. Wolf, C. H. Reforestation Requirements Under the Revised Federal Surface 
Mine Regulations. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation with Trees 
(cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., Southern IL Univ. and Madisonville Comm. 
Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983) Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, 
pp. 11-18. 

The author examines the requirements of the revised Federal rules and the Surface 
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 in relation to the reforestation of mined 
lands. These revised rules allow for greater flexibility by mine operators and State 
regulatory authorities. The revised Federal surface mine regulations governing back- 
filling and grading, topsoiling, revegetation, and postmining land use are discussed 
and interpreted in a clear and concise manner. The information related in this pa- 
per is central to planning and monitoring mine reclamation activities throughout the 
country. Consequently, this paper is highly recommended to anyone directly or indi- 
rectly concerned with surface mining and surface mine reclamation. 

784. Wolf, C. H. , C. E. Cordell, and S. M. Keller. Fungus Speeds Mine Reclama- 
tion. Coal Age, Sept. 1982, pp. 62-64. 

This article provides a general, nontechnical review of ectomycorrhizae, in particu- 
lar Pisolithus tinctorius (Pt). The authors review recent research conducted in the 
Eastern and Interior Coal Mining Regions involving ectomycorrhizal inoculation of 
pine seedlings during planting and its affect on growth and establishment. The cost 
of establishing Pt-inoculated pine seedlings on abandoned mine sites at a 5- by 5-ft 
spacing is estimated at $300 per acre, a substantial saving over the usual practice 
of additional grading, resoiling, and grass planting. The information contained in 
this article may be of interest to individuals planting coniferous trees as part of a 
surface mine reclamation effort. 

785. Wolfe, M. H. Use of a Historical Data Base as a Revegetation Success Stan- 
dard. Paper in Symposium on Western Coal Mining Regulatory Issues: Land Use, Reveg- 
etation, & Management (West. Reclam. Group, Denver, CO, Apr. 1982). CO State Univ., 
Range Sci. Dep., Fort Collins, CO, Sci. Ser. No. 35, Aug. 1983, pp. 47-49. 

The author presents an alternative approach to the reference area method of evaluat- 
ing revegetation success. This method uses a historical data base to identify habi- 
tat types for establishing success standards. The method is outlined as proposed for 



284 

use on Kaiser Steel Corp's coal reserves in northeastern New Mexico and approved by 
the regulatory authority of New Mexico. This article was written with specific ref- 
erence to northeastern New Mexico. However, it has probable application over a much 
broader geographic area, including the Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal 
Mining Regions . 

786. Wood, P. A. Characteristics, Comparisons, Classification, and Erodibility of 
Some Northern Alabama Coal Mine Spoils. Ph. D. Thesis, Auburn Univ., Auburn, AL, 
Aug. 1979, 221 pp. 

Various coal mine spoils of northern Alabama are identified, characterized, and clas- 
sified. The relative potential erodibility of these spoils is compared based on 
several erodibility indices. Recent spoils were compared on the basis of 14 physi- 
cal and chemical properties. The older spoils were studied in a similar manner with 
the additional study of carbon and nitrogen content and subsurface materials. A 
classification of northern Alabama mine spoils is proposed based on three properties: 
(1) percent of gravel size particles (>2 mm), (2) color of the soil size fraction, 
and (3) reaction of the soil size fraction relationships between chemical and physi- 
cal properties were developed for recently formed, dark-colored spoils. These rela- 
tionships apply within a pH range of 2 to 8. The process of accumulation of gravel 
sized particles at the surface of spoils, termed "armoring," is discussed. Kaolinite 
and muscovite are the dominant clay minerals of the spoils examined. Chlorite and 
vermiculite were also generally present in the clay mineral assemblages. The infor- 
mation contained in this report is relevant to planning reclamation projects and re- 
search in the southern portion of the Eastern Coal Mining Region. 

787. Woods, F. W. , R. L. Hay, and G. H. Irwin. Minesite Preparation for Refores- 
tation of Strip-Mined Lands. Paper in Symposium on Surface Mining and Fish/Wildlife 
Needs in the Eastern United States (WV Univ., Dec. 1978). U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Ser. FWS/OBS-78/81, 1978, pp. 306-310. 

This study investigated the effects of minesite preparation on the establishment of 
two tree species on strip mine sites in the southeast. Virginia pine ( Pinus virgin- 
iana Mill. ) and pitch pine ( Pinus rigida Mill.) seedlings were used on two different 
sites: (1) mulched and seeded to grass and (2) no revegetation treatment. Minesite 
preparation consisted of removing 50 cm^ of spoil and mixing it at a rate of 12 parts 
spoil to 4 parts pine bark and 1 part vermiculite. Lime and fertilizer were added, 
the amended spoil material was returned to the hole, and the seedlings were planted. 
Control seedlings were also planted without any type of site preparation. Results 
from the 9-month survival counts indicate that pine survival was better on minesite 
areas than controls for both bare and grass-covered sites. The authors believe that 
tree planting is feasible during the summer months if (1) the competitive effects of 
a dense grass cover are minimized, (2) erosion is minimized, (3) irrigatio is used, 
and (4) soil amendments are used. 

788. World Coal. Reclamation of Surface Mined Lands. V. 5, No. 9, 1979, p. 46. 

This article reviews a two-part report by W.L.G. Muir entitled "Reclamation of Sur- 
face Mined Lands." It is written from a legal and technical point of view and covers 
two situations: (1) the recovery of land disturbed by former mining operations be- 
fore reclamation was required by law and (2) the process of reclamation as a part of 
the regular mining cycle. Part 1 deals with the technology of reclamation. It is 
divided into eight chapters and contains information on the methods of mining, proce- 
dures used in reclamation and revegetation, and costs. Part 2 deals with the law and 
practice in major mining nations of the West that have enacted legislation on the 
subject. It contains detailed information on the regulations, procedures, practices, 
etc., on a country-by-country basis. For more information and detail on the topics 
covered by Muir, one should obtain a copy from World Coal in San Francisco, CA. 



285 

789. Wyatt, J. W. , D. J. Dollhopf, and W. M. Schafer. Root Distribution in 1- to 
48-Year-old Stripmine Spoils in Southeastern Montana. J. Range Manage., v. 33, No. 
2, Mar. 1980, pp. 101-104. 

The distribution of plant roots in strip mine soils ranging. in age from 1 year to 48 
years old, and in undisturbed soils, in the vicinity of Colstrip, MT was determined 
using three methods: (1) soil profile description, (2) root biomass, and (3) radio- 
active tracer ■'^P. The results indicate that the older spoils had substantially more 
roots below 100 cm than the new spoils on the undisturbed soils. The authors attrib- 
ute differences in root abundance and distribution between the various sites to dif- 
fering species composition. Half-shrubs dominated the older spoils, while grasses 
were dominant on the new spoils and the undisturbed soils. In new spoils, root bio- 
mass was 44 pet less than in the undisturbed soils and 43 pet less than in the old 
spoils. The radioactive tracer method was used to determine maximum rooting depths 
of 15 important plant species. The information provided by the report has applica- 
tion for evaluating reclamation success and determining the necessary depth of burial 
for toxic overburden material. The results of this study are primarily applicable to 
the Northern Great Plains Coal Mining Region. 

790. Yamamoto, T. Mixing Overburden To Stimulate Soil Conditions: ARCO Black 
Thunder Mine. Paper in Ecology and Coal Resource Development, Volume 2 (based on 
the Int. Congr. for Energy and the Ecosystem, Univ. ND, Grand Forks, ND, June 12-16, 
1978). Pergamon, 1978, pp. 791-797. 

This paper relates the results of a study conducted in northwestern Wyoming on the 
suitability of thoroughly mixed overburden for establishment of the Northern Great 
Plains short grass complex and associated woody vegetation. The paper is a good 
source of values for soil chemical and physical factors for mixed and natural soil 
that could be used for comparative purposes. 

791. Yamamoto, T. A Review of Uranium Spoil and Mill Tailings Revegetation in the 
Western United States. U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-92, Oct. 1982, 20 pp. 

The author conducted an extensive review of the literature describing uranium spoil 
and mill tailing revegetation in the Western United States. Although the principles 
discussed are often applicable to coal operations in the same areas (west of the Mis- 
sissippi River) , the main thrust was the control of radioactivity from uranium mining 
wastes. Site characterization, moisture considerations, erosion potential, and long- 
term effects are needs common to both uranium and coal. In summary, the author con- 
cludes that the most simple and effective species selection method is to use species 
that have invaded the waste materials. These are the ones not adversely affected by 
the waste characteristics. Much of the literature reviewed in this article applies 
to coal revegetation in the Western United States. 

792. Yoakum, J. Pronghorn Habitat Requirements and Reclamation. Paper in the 
Third Biennial Symposium on Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation on the Great Plains 
(cochaired by the Reclam. Res. Unit, MT State Univ. and U.S. Off. of Surface Min. , 
Billings, MT, Mar. 19-21, 1984). MT State Univ. and U.S. OSM, 1983, pp. 148-155. 

The characteristics of good pronghorn habitat in the sagebrush-grassland and short 
grassland communities are described, and recommendations are made for successful res- 
toration of pronghorn habitat. The author stresses that for resoration projects to 
benefit pronghorns , these projects must be designed in accordance with the ecological 
requirements of the pronghorn. Reclamation principles and practices are discussed, 
including vegetation restoration and water developments. The information contained 
in this paper is applicable throughout the range of the pronghorn which includes the 
Northern Great Plains, Rocky Mountain and the eastern portion of the Pacific Coal 
Mining Regions. 



286 

793. Yokell, M. D. , and G. Sanders. The Economics of Reclamation. Paper in Con- 
ference on the Economics of Mined-land Reclamation (Proc. Conf. cosponsored by the 
Land Reclam. Prog., Argonne Nat. Lab. and U.S. Dep. Energy, Chicago, XL, Sept. 1-2, 
1981). Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL/LRP-TM-20, Sept. 1981, pp. 3-36. 

A conceptual approach to reclamation economics is presented, contrasting legal and 
economic approaches. The cost of reclamation is treated as another mining cost, with 
minimization of the total cost of mining as the objective. A mathmatical model is 
presented to illustrate the concept. The costs inherent in reclamation are divided 
into premining costs, topsoiling costs, regrading and backfilling costs, and reveg- 
etation costs. Preliminary total reclamation cost data are presented by category 
(premining, topsoiling, revegetation, etc.), region, and mining method. The analy- 
sis, results, and discussion contained in this paper attempt to be national in scope. 
The cost analysis model developed is meant for application throughout the United 
States. 

794. Young, R. G. , T. R. Sitler, R. A. Ralogh, and E. C. Aharrah. An Investiga- 
tion of Japanese Fleece Flower (Polygonum cuspidatum) Planted on Strip Mines in Clar- 
ion and Venango Counties, Pennsylvania. Paper in 1982 Symposixim on Surface Mining, 
Hydrology, Sedimentology , and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 5-10, 1982). Univ. 
KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 143-152. 

The authors present the results of a study conducted to evaluate the condition of 
Japanese fleecef lower ( Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. and Zucc.) growing under a canopy 
of woody plants on surface-mined sites in Clarion and Venango Counties, PA. This 
study compares the growth of fleecef lower under canopy with open-grown plants. Her- 
baceous grass cover of 5 pet or greater prevented the invasion of fleeceflower onto 
mined land. Fleeceflower was also successfully underplanted with seedlings of sugar 
maple ( Acer saccharum Marsh.), white birch ( Betula pendula Roth.), and gray brich 
( Betula populifolia Marsh.). This demonstrates that fleeceflower can be crowded out 
by overtopping. Fleeceflower may be useful as a serai stage leading to the refores- 
tation of abandoned mine lands. 

795. Young, S. A., and E. J. DePuit, Response of Seeded Species to Temporary 
Irrigation and Seeding Date. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, 
Sedimentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexing- 
ton, KY, 1982, pp. 21-29. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of temporary irrigation on vegeta- 
tion establishment on surface-mined land near Colstrip, MT. Two different types of 
vegetative establishment were used, spring (April) and early summer (June), along 
with four irrigation treatments: no irrigation, 1 month of irrigation, 2 months of 
irrigation, and 3 months of irrigation following establishment. The same species 
were used in both spring and summer plantings , followed by a fertilizer treatment 
once the seedlings emerged. The specific objectives of the study were to (1) evalu- 
ate the effects of temporary irrigation on establishment, productivity, structure, 
species composition, and diversity of seeded species during the initial year of irri- 
gation and the subsequent years with no irrigation, (2) determine the effects of 
varied irrigation duration, and (3) evaluate vegetation development and composition 
after summer seeding and temporary irrigation. The results show that initial plant 
emergence was not affected by irrigation. However, after 2 years there was greater 
species diversity on the spring spring-seeded plots with 1 month of temporary irriga- 
tion. After 2 years following an initial period of slow development, the summer- 
seeded plots were dominated by cool season perennial grasses. It appears that 
2 months of irrigation are necessary for the development of successful vegetation on 
the summer-seeded plots. Irrigation seemed to favor the establishment of perennial 
grasses over seeded shrubs and forbs and reduced the production of weedy species on 



287 



all plots. The authors conclude that temporary irrigation could be used as a manage- 
ment tool for successful reclamation in the Northern Great Plains. 

796. Younos , T. M. , and M. D. Smolen. Simulation of Infiltration in a Sewage 
Sludge Amended Mine Soil. Paper in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sed- 
imentology, and Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, 
KY, 1982, pp. 319-324. 

The purpose of this study was to simulate the effect of sewage sludge incorporation 
on the water infiltration properties of mine soil in the laboratory. The mine soil 
used to construct the model was obtained from a mountaintop removal surface mine near 
Beckley, WV. The results of the simulation study indicate that sludge incorporation 
increases the hydraulic conductivity, promotes rapid filling of soil pores, and en- 
courages rapid saturation of amended mine soils. All three contribute to an increase 
in the infiltration capacity of sludge-amended mine soil when compared to unamended 
mine soil. The increased infiltration capacity results in a more rapid advance of 
the wetting front and more moisture available for plant growth. 

797. Zarger, T. G. Forestation of Surface Mines for Wildlife. Paper in Trees for 
Reclamation (Lexington, KY, Oct. 27-29, 1980). U.S. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-61, 
1980, pp. 71-74. 

The author reviews the Tennessee Valley Authority Program efforts to develop and pro- 
mote the effective use of wildlife food and cover plants for surface mine reclamation 
in the Eastern United States. Information is given on plant materials that have been 
developed for use on surface mines for wildlife needs, planting demonstrations that 
assessed a variety of food and cover plants, and action programs that have been de- 
veloped to incorporate wildlife plantings into postmining land use. A brief discus- 
sion is included on wildlife considerations under Public Law 95-87 and wildlife seed- 
ling needs and supply problems. 

798. Zell, L. M. Determining the Research Needs of Mining and Reclamation Council 
of America, the Surface Coal Mining Industry, Draft Report (U.S. DOE grant DE-FGOl- 
81FE00094). U.S. DOE, Off. Coal Min. , May 1982, 122 pp. 

This document is a synthesis of input from all sectors of the surface coal mining in- 
dustry, academic researchers, and Government personnel. It reviews the status of 
present knowledge and technology pertaining to surface coal mining throughout the 
Nation and presents outlines for perceived research needs. These discussions are 
treated on a regional basis recognizing three coal mining regions nationally. The 
major subjects covered include hydrology, sedimentology , reclamation, air quality, 
and blasting. This evaluation pertains only to those portions discussing reclama- 
tion. The rating refers to the discussion and identification of specific research 
needs for reclamation. Some specific topics tend to be more important in one region 
than another. Consequently, each topic rated is not always encountered in the re- 
gional discussions contained in the document. The document has been designed for 
regional application and provides an excellent review of research needs. It is per- 
tinent to decisionmaking in establishing priorities for research. 

799. Zellmer, S. D. A Coal Refuse Reclamation Project. Proc. WV Acad. Sci. v. 
51, No. 3, 1980, pp. 115-127. 

This paper reports interim results of a project demonstrating methods that can be 
used to reclaim abandoned coal refuse sites. A 13.8-ha abandoned site in southwest- 
ern Illinois was reclaimed by recontouring the refuse material and covering it with a 
minimum of 30 cm of topsoil. A mixture of grasses and legumes was seeded on 8.9 ha 
of the site. A multidisciplinary approach was used to evaluate postconstruction en- 
vironmental and econmic effects of the reclamation effort. The author reports estab- 
lishment of plant cover, development of soil microbial populations, and formation of 



288 

wildlife habitats. The results and discussions contained in this article are primar- 
ily relevant to the Interior Coal Mining Region. 

800. Zellmer, S. D. Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project, Progress Report 
for 1977. Argonne Nat. Lab., Argonne, IL, ANL/LRP-TM-14, Dec. 1978, 70 pp. 

This progress report presents first-year research results for the many studies com- 
prising the Staunton 1 Project. The overall project objectives are to reclaim this 
abandoned mine site, and in the process furnish necessary design data and develop and 
demonstrate economic methods for future reclamation efforts of this type. The proj- 
ect is located in Macoupin County in southwestern Illinois. Studies monitoring 
ground water, surface water quality, aquatic ecosystems, revegetation, soil charac- 
teristics, erosion and runoff, soil microbial and soil fauna populations, wildlife, 
and economic effects of the reclamation project are described. This project is an 
intensive reclamation effort. The information and methods described would be most 
suitable for application in the Interior and Eastern Coal Mining Regions. 

801. Zellmer, S. D. Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project — Progress Report 
II. Argonne Nat. Lab., Argonne, IL, ANL/ES-73, July 1979, 110 pp. 

This document provides a status report for the Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration 
Project being conducted near Staunton, IL. The project involves an evaluation of the 
reclamation process on a 13.8-ha abandoned deep coal mine refuse site. Approximately 
9.3 ha of refuse material was recontoured, covered with a minimum of 30 cm of soil 
obtained on site, and seeded with a mixture of grasses. The progress of a number 
of projects following 2 years of intensive monitoring and evaluation is reported. 
Studies being conducted at the site include monitoring of the groundwater quality, 
surface water quality, aquatic ecosystems, revegetation success, soil characteris- 
tics, slope angle and erosion rate, soil microbiology, wildlife, economic benefits, 
and site management and maintenance. Since this is a progress report, the results 
reported are tentative. However, the report provides an excellent reference for rec- 
lamation planning and is applicable to the Interior and portions of the Eastern Coal 
Mining Regions . 

802. Ziemkiewicz , P. F. Determination of Nutrient Recycling Capacity of Two 
Reclaimed Coal Mine Sites in British Columbia. Reclam. Reveg. Res., No. 1, 1982, 
pp. 51-62. 

This paper is a brief summary of the author's Ph. D. thesis. Studies were conducted 
over a 14-month period to determine if fertilization is still necessary after 3 years 
of maintenance on two reclaimed coal mines near Sparwood in southeastern British 
Columbia, Canada. Two distinct phases of revegetated plant communities were identi- 
fied, the immature and the mature. Immature vegetation is characterized by small 
root systems with a major portion of the system's available nutrients being trans- 
ferred from the shoots to the detritus in the autumn. Slow decomposition of the de- 
tritus causes nutrient deficiency, particularly in cold and dry climates, and longer 
periods of maintenance fertilization are necessary. The mature phase is charac- 
terized by rapid detrital decomposition and a larger root system, both of which 
provide a readily mineralized pool of nutrients to the soil. Mature vegetation needs 
no maintenance fertilization; in fact, fertilization during a drought year may damage 
a mature reclaimed area. Immature plant communities do not necessarily become ma- 
ture , particularly at subalpine and alpine locations where maturation may not occur 
until adapted native species become established. 

803. Ziemkiewicz, P. F., and S. M. Northway. A Species Selection Technique for 
Reclamation in British Columbia. Reclam. Rev., v. 1, No. 3/4, 1978, pp. 163-166. 

This study determined which physiographic, soil chemical, or soil physical property 
had an influence on the establishment and productivity of 13 grass and legume species 



) 



289 

used to revegetate coal-mined land near Sparwood, British Columbia, Canada. The re- 
sults indicate that species productivity is strongly correlated with elevation and 
aspect, with elevation being the most significant parameter. Along an elevational 
gradient two major plant groupings can be distingushed: (1) at 1,150 to 1,650 m the 
plants are crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum (Fisch.) Schult.), interme- 
diate wheatgrass ( Agropyron intermedium (Host Beauv.), smooth brome ( Bromus inermis 
Leyss.), Canada bluegrass ( Poa compressa L.), and alfalfa ( Medlcago sativa L.) and 
(2) above 1,650 m the plants are smooth brome, orchardgrass (Dactylls glomerata L.), 
timothy ( Phleum pratense L.), meadow foxtail ( Alopecurus pratensis L.), red fescue 
( Festuca rubra L.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), redtop ( Agrostis alba L.), 
alfalfa, white clover ( Trifolium repens L.) and red clover ( Trifolium pratense L.). 

804. Zimmerman, L. J. , and R. F. Wittwer. Use of Slow Release Fertilizers When 
Planting Sycamore, Yellow Poplar and Cottonwood Seedlings on Surface Mined Land. Pa- 
per in 1981 Symposium on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology, and Reclamation 
(Lexington, KY, Dec. 7-11, 1981). Univ. KY, Lexington, KY, 1982, pp. 477-480. 

This study was conducted in Bell County, southeastern Kentucky, on a site that had 
recently been mined by the mountaintop removal method. The objectives of the study 
were to (1) compare the effects of two types of slow-release, tableted fertilizers 
at two application rates on the growth and survival of eastern cottonwood ( Populus 
deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuliplfera L.), and Amercian 
sycamore ( Platanus occidentalis L.) and (2) determine if the fertilizer tablet appli- 
cation is more effective than broadcast fertilizing for improving tree survival and 
growth. The fertilizer treatments were: one 9-g slow release tablet (18-8-3), two 
9-g tablets, one 21-g slow release tablet (20-15-5), two 21-g tablets, and 280 kg/ha 
of diamonium phosphate (18-46-0) broadcast over the surface. The results show no 
significant effect of treatments on first year survival, growth, or nutrient content 
of the trees. The authors speculate that this may be due to the age of the trees, 
the low fertilizer application rates , or the below-normal precipitation that occurred 
during the first growing season. 

805. Zipper, C. E. Economic Analysis and the Planting of Hardwood Trees on Sur- 
face Mined Lands. Paper in Third Annual Conference on Better Reclamation With Trees 
(cosponsored by AMAX Coal Co., Purdue Univ., South. IL Univ. and Madisonville Comm. 
Coll., Terre Haute, IN, June 2-3, 1983). Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN, 1983, 
pp. 202-216. 

The economics of establishing long-rotation hardwoods on mined lands are analyzed, 
assuming minimal establishment problems and yields approximating those achievable on 
natural soil sites. Given these assumptions, internal rates of return in the 2- to 
4-pct range are indicated. Calculated rates close to 5 pet result from "best case" 
assumptions. The report offers a hypothetical economic analysis of long-rotation 
hardwood sawtimber production which points out favorable potential yields if techni- 
cal problems can be overcome. This report has potential application to reclamation 
planning in the Eastern and Interior Surface Coal Mining Regions. 



290 



APPENDIX C. —OTHER BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF COAL-MINED-LAND RECLAMATION LITERATURE 



1. Albrecht, J. Reclamation and Re- 
vegetation of Strip Mined Land: A Se- 
lected Bibliography of Publications in 
the University of Minnesota Forestry Li- 
brary. Univ. MN Forestry Library, St. 
Paul Campus Libraries, St. Paul, MN, Bib- 
liography Series No. 1, Supplement No. 1, 

1978, 15 pp. 

2. Albrecht, J., and D. Smith. Recla- 
mation and Revegetation of Strip Mined 
Land: A Selected Bibliography of Publi- 
cations in the University of Minnesota 
Forestry Library. Appendix: A Selected 
Bibliography on the Environmental Effects 
of Copper-Nickel Mining in Minnesota. 
Univ. MN Forestry Library, St. Paul Cam- 
pus Libraries, St. Paul, MN, Bibliography 
Series No. 1, 1976, 21 pp. 

3. Daniels, L. K. , C. A. Boyd, T. F. 
Daniels, and H. A. Kann. A Selective 
Bibliography of Surface Coal Mining and 
Reclamation Literature, Volume 3: West- 
ern Coal Provinces. Argonne Natl. Lab. 
ANL/LRP-1, v. 3, Jan. 1981, 206 pp. 

4. Gleason, V. E. Coal and Envi- 
ronment Series Bibliography on Mined 
Land Reclamation. U.S. EPA-60017-79-102, 

1979, 372 pp. 

5. Meyers, C. R. Postmining Land Use: 
A Bibliography of Existing Experience and 
Potential Alternative Uses for Reclaiming 
Surface Coal Mining Operation. U.S. Off. 
Surface Min. OSM/TR-4-42, ORNL/TM 8016, 
Nov. 1982, 223 pp. 

6. Patricoski, M. L. , L. K. Daniels, 
and A. A. Sobek. A Selective Bibliogra- 
phy of Surface Coal Mining and Reclama- 
tion Literature, Volume 2: Interior Coal 
Province. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-1, 
V. 2, Aug. 1979, 152 pp. 

7. Ralson, S., D. Hilbert, D. Swift, 
B. Carlson, and L. Mengines. The 



Ecological Effects of Coal Strip Mining: 
A Bibliography With Abstracts. U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Ser. FWS/OBS-77/09, Mar. 
1977, 416 pp. 

8. Sendlein, L. V. A., and H. Yazici- 
gil. A Selected Bibliography for Surface 
Coal Mining Environmental Monitoring and 
Reclamation. South. IL Univ. at Car- 
bondale (U.S. DOE contract DE-AC-22- 
80ET14146), DOE/ET 14146-1, Jan. 1982, 
92 pp. 

9. Smith, M. F. Coal Mine Waste — 
A Bibliography With Abstracts. NTIS, 
Springfield, VA, NTIS/PS-75/112, Jan. 
1975, 51 pp. 

10. University of California. Labo- 
ratory of Nuclear Medicine and Radia- 
tion Biology, Annual Progress Report for 
July 1, 1979- June 30, 1980 (U.S. DOE 
contract DE-AMO3-76-SF000012) . UCLA 12- 
1253, 1980, pp. 54-96. 

11. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 
Western Energy and Land Use Team Pub- 
lications: An Annotated Bibliography. 
WELUT-79/10, Oct. 1979, 35 pp. 

12. U.S. Forest Service. An Annotated 
Bibliography of Surface-Mined Area Rec- 
lamation Research. NE For. Exp. Sta., 
Berea, KY, May 1982, 46 pp. 

13. U.S. National Technical Informa- 
tion Service. Coal Mine Waste 1964-March 

1982 (Citations From the NTIS Data Base). 
PB 82-807652, Apr. 1982, 157 pp. 

14. . Strip Mining 1980- June, 

1983 (Citations From the NTIS Data Base). 
PB 83-807560, July 1983, 84 pp. 

15. Weiss, N. E., A. A. Sobek, and 
D. L. Streib. A Selective Bibliography 
of Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation 
Literature, Volume 1: Eastern Coal Prov- 
ince. Argonne Natl. Lab. ANL/LRP-1, v. 
1, Nov. 1977, 158 pp. 



291 



APPENDIX D.~OSM OFFICES AND STATE AND INDIAN CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED 
MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS 

OSM OFFICES 



Headquarters 

Office of Surface Mining 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

1951 Constitution Ave., NW. 

Washington, DC 20240 

Financial Operations 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Branch of Financial Operations 

P.O. Box 25065 

Denver Federal Center 

Denver, CO 80225 

Technical Centers 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Technical Center West 

Brooks Towers 

1020 15th St. 

Denver, CO 80202 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Technical Center East 
Ten Parkway Center 
Pittsburgh, PA 15220 

Field Offices 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Charleston Field Office 

603 Morris St. 

Charleston, WV 25301 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Harrisburg Field Office 
101 South 2d St., Suite L-4 
Harrisburg, PA 17101 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Lexington Field Office 
340 Legion Dr., Suite 28 
Lexington, KY 40504 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Tulsa Field Office 
333 West 4th St., Room 3432 
Tulsa, OK 74103 



Field Offices — Con . 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Rnoxville Field Office 

530 Gay St., Suite 500 

Knoxville, TN 37902 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Columbus Field Office 
2242 South Hamilton Rd., 2d Floor 
Columbus, OH 43227 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Indianapolis Field Office 

Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse, 

Room 520 
46 East Ohio St. 
Indianapolis, IN 46204 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Big Stone Gap Field Office 
R.R. #3 Box 183-C 
Big Stone Gap, VA 24219 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Kansas City Field Office 
818 Grand Ave., Scarritt Bldg. 
Kansas City, MO 64106 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Springfield Field Office 
#4 Old State Capitol Plaza, North 
Springfield, IL 62701 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Albuquerque Field Office 
219 Central NW. 
Albuquerque, NM 87102 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 

Casper Field Office 

Freden Bldg. 

935 Pendell Blvd. 

Mills, WY 82644 

Office of Surface Mining, USDI 
Birmingham Field Office 
228 West Valley Ave., 3d Floor 
Homewood, AL 34209 



292 



STATE CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS 



Title IV 



Title V 





ALABAMA 


Director 




Director 


Department of Industrial Relations 




Alabama Surface Mining Commission 


649 Monroe St. 




P.O. Box 2390 


Montgomery, AL 36130 




Jasper, AL 35501 



ALASKA 



Commissioner 

Department of Natural Resources 

Pouch M 

Juneau, AL 99811 



Same 



Director 


Same 


Department of Pollution Control and 




Ecology 




8001 National Dr. 




Little Rock, AK 72209 







COLORADO 


Director 




Same 


Mined Lands Reclamation Division 






Department of Natural Resources 






Centennial Bldg. , Room 423 






1313 Sherman St. 






Denver, CO 80203 







GEORGIA 



Commissioner 

Department of Natural Resources 

270 Washington St. 

Atlanta, GA 30334 



Same 





ILLINOIS 


Director 




Same 


Department of Mines and Minerals 






Stratton Office Bldg., Room 704 






Springfield, IL 62706 









INDIANA 


Director 




Same 


Department of Natural Resources 






State Office Bldg., 6th Floor 






Indianapolis, IN 46204 







IOWA 



Director 

Department of Soil Conservation 

Wallace State Office Bldg. 

East 9th and Grand St. 

Des Moines, lA 50319 



Same 



293 



i 



STATE CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS — Continued 



Title IV 



Title V 



Executive Director 


Chairman 


Mined Land Conservation and Reclamation 


Kansas Corporation Commission 


Board 


915 Harrison St., Room 426 


107 West 11th St. 


Topeka, KS 66612 


P.O. Box 1418 




Pittsburg, KS 66762 







KENTUCKY 


Secretary 




Same 


Natural Resources and Environmental 






Protection Cabinet 






Capitol Plaza Tower, 5th Floor 






Frankfort, KY 40601 







LOUISIANA 



Commissioner 

Department of Natural Resources and 

Environmental Protection 
P.O. Box 44275 
Baton Rouge, LA 70804 



Same 



MARYLAND 



Administrator 
Energy Administration 
Tawes State Office Bldg. 
580 Taylor Ave. 
Annapolis, MP 21401 



Same 



MICHIGAN 


Director 


Same 


Michigan Department of Natural Resources 




Stevens T. Mason Bldg. 




P.O. Box 30028 




Lansing, MI 48909 





MISSISSIPPI 



Executive Director 

Mississippi Department of Natural 

Resources 
P.O. Box 20305 
Jackson, MS 39209 



Same 



MISSOURI 



Director 

Department of Natural Resources 

P.O. Box 176 

Jefferson City, MO 65102 



Same 



MONTANA 



Commissioner 

Department of State Lands 
Capitol Station 
Helena, MI 59620 



Same 



294 



STATE CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS — Continued 



Title IV 



Title V 





NEW MEXICO 


Director 




Same 


Mining and Minerals Division 






Energy and Minerals Department 






525 Camino de los Marquez 






Santa Fe, NM 87501 









NORTH I 


)AKOTA 


President 




Same 


Public Service Commission 






Capitol Bldg. 






Bismarck, ND 58505 







OHIO 



Director 

Ohio Department of Natural Resources 
Fountain Square, Bldg. B-3 
Columbus, OH 43224 



Same 





OKLAHOMA 


Executive Director 




Deputy Chief Mine Inspector 


Oklahoma Conservation Commission 




4040 North Lincoln Blvd., 


20 State Capitol Bldg. 




Suite 107 


Oklahoma City, OK 73105 




Oklahoma City, OK 73105 





OREGON 


Administrator 




Same 


Mined Land Reclamation Office 






Department of Geology and Mineral 






Industries 






1129 South Santiam Rd., SE. 






Albany, OR 97321 







PENNSYLVANIA 



Director 

Office of Environmental Energy Management 

P.O. Box 2063 

Fulton Bank Bldg., 7th Floor 

Harrisburg, PA 17120 



Secretary 

Department of Environmental Resources 

P.O. Box 2063 

Fulton Bank Bldg., 7th Floor 

Harrisburg, PA 17120 



RHODE " 


[SLAND 


Director 


Same 


Department of Environmental Management 




83 Park St. 




Providence, RI 02903 





TENNESSEE 



Assistant Commissioner 


Same 


Bureau of Environment 




Tennessee Department of Health and 




Environment 




T.E.R.R.A. Bldg. 




150 9th Ave. N. 




Nashville, TN 37203 





295 



STATE CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS—Continued 



Title IV 



Title V 



TEXAS 



Director 


Same 


Surface Mining Reclamation Division 




Railroad Commission of Texas 




Capitol Station 




P.O. Drawer 12967 




Austin, YX 78711 





UTAH 



Director 

Department of Natural Resources 

Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining 

4241 State Office Bldg. 

Salt Lake City, UT 84114 



Same 



VIRGINIA 


Abandoned Lands Manager 


Director 


Department of Conservation and Economic 


Department of Conservation 


Development 


1100 Washington Bldg. 


Division of Mined Land Reclamation 


Capitol Square 


P.O. Drawer U 


Richmond, VA 23219 


Big Stone Gap, VA 24219 







WASHINGTON 


Commissioner 




Same 


Department of Natural Resources 






Public Lands Bldg. 






Olympia, WA 98504 







WEST VIRGINIA 


Director 


Same 


West Virginia Department of Natural 




Resources 




1800 Washington St. E. 




Charleston, WV 25311 







WYOMING 


Director 




Same 


Department of Environmental Quality 






Equality State Bank Bldg. 






401 West 19th St., 2d Floor 






Cheyenne, WY 82002 







296 



STATE CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND ElEGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS — Continued 



INDIAN CONTACTS FOR ABANDONED MINE LANDS (TITLE IV) 
AND REGULATORY (TITLE V) GRANT PROGRAMS 



Title IV 



Title V 





CROW 


TRIBE 


Chairman 




Same 


Crow Tribal Council 






P.O. Box 580 






Tribal Administration Bldg. 






Crow Agency, MT 59022 









HOPI 


TRIBE 


Chairman 




Same 


Hopi Tribal Council 






P.O. Box 123 






Kykotsmovi, AZ 86039 









NAVAJO 


TRIBE 


Chairman 




Same 


The Navajo Tribe 






P.O. Box 308 






Window Rock, AZ 86515 







tVU.S. CPO; 1985-505-019/20,117 



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